C9 - Red and Rose Winemaking (reviewed)

Question 1

What are the key differences between red and white wine making?

Answer 1

• Red wine needs extraction of colour and tannins
• Implication: Considerably more choices to consider before, during and after fermentation
• Pressing happens after fermentation, not before
• MLF is standard practice rather than a stylistic choice

Question 2

What are the two ways of fermenting red wine

Answer 2

• Crushed Fruits Fermentation - Vast majority of wines
• Whole bunch fermentation

Question 3

Describe the different technics for Crushed Fruits Fermentation

Answer 3

• Pre-fermentation extraction
• Temperature control during fermentation
• Cap management techniques
• Fermentation vessel
• Post fermentation extraction

Question 4

Discuss red wine pre-fermentation extraction

Answer 4

Referred to as cold maceration or cold soaking

• Many winemaker leave the grapes to macerate for a period of a low temperature
• Used to extract colour and flavour compounds but not tannins as they are more soluble in alcohol, therefore not readily extracted during pre-fermentation

Question 5

Discuss temperature control during red wine fermentation

Answer 5

• Occurs between 20°C - 32°C (depending on style)
• Higher temperature to aid extraction of colour, flavour and tannins
• Beyond 35°C, the yeast may die and fermentation would not happen
• By precisely controlling temperature, red winemaker can influence the amounts of colour, flavour and tannin
• Reducing the temperature near the end of fermentation will lower the levels of tannins

Question 6

Discuss Cap management techniques

Answer 6

• If left alone to ferment, red wine will develop a thick mass of pulp and skins will form on its surface called cap
• If the cap is unmanaged (left to float), little colour, flavour or tannin will be extracted from it
• Cap management techniques can used and adjusted (duration and number of times practices)

Punching down (traditional)

• Cap is punched down by hand with paddles
• Danger of CO2 intoxication for workers but can be done with mechanical paddles
• Particularly effective at extracting colour and tannin
• Can be too effective at the end of the fermentation when tannins are more easily extracted

Pumping over

• Juice is drawn from the bottom of the vat and pumping it onto the top of the fermenting wine
• Good way of oxygenating the juice and dissipating heat

Rack and Return

• The fermenting juice is drained from the vessel into another one, leaving the cap behind and then pumped back over the cap
• Very extractive therefore can only performed 1 or 2 times during a fermentation
• Very good at dissipating heat

Rotary Fermentation

• Fermentation takes place in rotating horizontal tanks
• Keeps the juice in constant contact with the skins

Question 7

Discuss fermentation vessel

Answer 7

• They are usually large and open-topped because of cap management techniques
• Vessels are made oak, concrete or stainless steel
• Should not be in oak barrels - It would be almost impossible to maintain sufficient contact between the skins and the juice

Question 8

Discuss post-fermentation maceration?

Answer 8

• Objective is to extract further tannin
• Can create a smoother tannin structure

Question 9

Discuss press wine

Answer 9

• Immediately after fermentation/maceration the free run wine is drawn off the skins
• Press wine is the wine which is released from pressing the grape mass after fermentation (in the case of red wine)
• It is similar in composition to free-run wine at the beginning, but becomes deeper in colour and higher in tannin as pressing continues
• Winemaker will usually separate the press wine at different stages of pressing into press factions
• Press fractions are used later in the process to adjust colour and tannin in the final blend

Question 10

Discuss whole bunch fermentation

Answer 10

• Consideration - stems need to be ripe - unripe stems may give a bitter taste
• Whole bunch of uncrushed fruits may make up a small portion or entire vats
• Creates an oxygen free environment for the uncrushed grapes and Intracellular fermentation can happen
• Berries create alcohol within their cells without the involvement of yeast
• Distinctive aromas are created within the berry
• Three forms of whole-bunch fermentation:
  
  • Carbonic maceration
  • Semi-carbonic maceration
  • Whole bunches with crushed fruit

Question 11

Describe carbonic maceration

Answer 11

Stages:

• Whole uncrushed bunches are placed into vats which are filled with CO2 to remove all oxygen
• Intercellular fermentation begins
• At 2% alcohol, the grapes begin to split and they begin to release their juice
• The grapes are pressed
• Yeast completes the fermentation (off the skins)

Impact

• Extracts a lot of colour, but little tannin
• Aromas: Kirsch, banana, bubblegum and cinnamon-like spice

Question 12

Discuss semi-carbonic maceration

Answer 12

• The vats are not filled with CO2
• The vat is filled with whole bunches
• The weight of the whole bunches crushes those at the bottom, releasing some juice
• Grapes are submerged in the juice of the crushed ones, resulting in a lack of access to oxygen for the whole grapes
• Ambient yeast begin to ferment the juice at the bottom, filling the tank with CO2 as a by-product
• Remaining grapes undergo carbonic maceration
• Alcoholic fermentation continues on the skins
• Some premium Pinot Noirs are made using semi-carbonic maceration

Question 13

How is the winemaking process different when semi-carbonic maceration is used for premium Pinot Noir?

Answer 13

• Grape skins are progressively broken up during punching down
• An ever-decreasing amount of carbonic maceration takes place until all grapes are broken up
• Normal fermentation may continue on skins
• Post-fermentation maceration may take place
  
  • better integration of aromas from intracellular fermentation and the aromas from the grape variety
  • Wine have a fresher fruit character

Question 14

Describe whole bunches with crushed fruits fermentation

Answer 14

• Mix whole bunches with crushed grapes in the fermenting vessel at the start of the fermentation
• No blanket of CO2 required
• Whole bunches are largely submerged by crushed grapes and kept away from oxygen which allows for intracellular fermentation
• Whole bunches are progressively crushed during the fermentation as the cap is regularly punched down.
• More ‘carbonic’ characteristics can be achieved by raising the percentage of whole bunches used
• This results in silkier texture, brighter, fresher fruit characteristics

Question 15

Discuss maturation in red wine making

Answer 15

• The most important maturation decision is whether or not to use oak
• Almost all red will undergo MLF
• Usage of Lees is less beneficial to red wines (robust flavours)
• A red winemaker’s best wines will be still often be aged long and with more new oak
• Trend is to use oak vessels of different ages and larger sizes for subtlety and better integration rather than using only small new oak barrels
• The best wines will usually made with a higher quality, more concentrated fruit will support a greater level of new oak flavours

Question 16

Discuss blending for red wine

Answer 16

• Blending grapes to enhance or balance out certain aspects of the wine, such as colour, body, tannin, acidity and flavour
• Blending different press fractions to boost colour, flavour and tannin in the more delicate free-run wines
• Blending of wines matured in oak vessels of different ages, sizes and toasting levels to enhance the complexity
• Blending of wines matured in oak with ones matured in stainless steel or concrete vessels to get a more subtle oak influence

Question 17

Discuss clarification and/or stabilisation in red wine

Answer 17

• Some winemakers avoid it as they believe that these processes may harm the wine’s structure
• They avoid it by allowing gradual sedimentation through extended maturation

Question 18

Describe high-volume, inexpensive red wines - location, grapes, style

Answer 18

• Tend to be grown in warm, sunny and dry areas
• Grape varieties are usually those that do well in these areas (e.g. Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Grenache)
• Due to the concentration of colours and flavours in their skins they can produce fruity wines with adequate colour even at high yields
• Compared to premium wines: Less colour, lighter tannins and less intense and complex aromas
• Broad flavours: Fruity and low-tannin

Question 19

Name a black grape which is rarely used in high-volume, inexpensive wines Why?

Answer 19

Pinot Noir - it is hard to grow, prefers cooler climates and can be difficult to extract adequate colour and tannin at high yields

Question 20

Describe wine making for high-volume, inexpensive red wines

Answer 20

• Handled protectively - Fresh, fruity aromas retained by handling the juice protectively with SO2 levels being monitored throughout
• Usually be destemmed and crushed
• Tartaric acid adjustment will usually be needed due to the warm growing climate usually experienced
• Maceration may not be an option - ties-up vat space and may not be feasible in a high throughput winery
• Fermentation at 22 - 25C to maximise fresh fruit aromas
• Cap not heavily worked but depends on style
• Post-fermentation maceration usually avoided (vat space, time and additional tannins not usually desirable for fruity style)
• Carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration frequently used for fruity style wines especially for Grenache or Beaujolais
• Maturation options:
  
  • Stainless steel (pure fruit flavours)
  • Short oak ageing - to smooth tannins and add oak flavours, but often 2nd/3rd fill and only a few months
  • Steel with oak staves/chips (for quick toasty flavours)
• Stabilisation, clarification - always used to meet with customer expectations
• SO2 levels are topped up to reduce chances of oxidation despite the short shelf-life

Question 21

Describe Cabernet Sauvignon grape in for premium wine making

Answer 21

Grape

• Thick-skinned and late-ripening therefore has an abundance of colour, flavour and tannin
• If doesn’t ripen properly wines can be astringent and herbaceous
• Region: CS is the classic grape of Haut-Medoc in Bordeaux but also common in South of France, Italy, Spain

Flavour:

• In youth: Grippy tannins. Cedar and Blackcurrant leaf.
• With age: Softer tannins. More expression.

Blending:

• France - Merlot - It gives juicy plum flavours and a smoother texture
• EU: usually with local varieties e.g., Sangiovese, Tempranillo
• Outside of EU - Blended (e.g., Shiraz Australia) and single-variety

Question 22

What styles/flavours are achieved by Cabernet in the warmer non-european areas?

Answer 22

• Full-bodies wines
• Smooth tannins
• Blackcurrant and black cherry

Question 23

List some classic regions for the non-european production of Cabernet Sauvignon

Answer 23

• California: Napa Valley
• Australia: Coonawarra and Margaret River
• New Zealand: Hawke’s Bay
• South Africa: Stellenbosch
• Chile: Colchagua Valley

Question 24

Describe Cabernet Sauvignon premium winemaking

Answer 24

• Grapes are destemed and crushed
• Fermentation: 26C to 30C
  
  • High enough to achieve satisfactory levels of extraction
  • Cool enough to promote fresh fruit flavour
  • Because the grapes has high tannins, high temperatures are avoided and less extractive cap management is used (especially important if tannins are unripe)
• Post-fermentation maceration: for gentle tannin extraction and tannin-softening
• Maturation:
  
  • High proportion of new oak can be used (has intense flavours, medium to full body and high tannins)
  • Usually French 225L barriques
  • From six months to three/four years (12 to 18 months is typical)
• Because of high tannins and sometimes light body, Cabernet is less suitable for a single-varietal wine

Question 25

Describe Merlot grape in for premium wine making

Answer 25

Buds and ripens earlier than Cabernet and therefore harvested earlier

Bordeaux syle Merlot

• Medium body and alcohol
• Higher acidity
• Fresh red fruit character
• Some vegetal, leafy aromas
• Rarely made outside of Bordeaux

Key points of the ‘International Style’ of Merlot Grapes

• Harvested as late as possible Intense purple colour
• Concentrated blackberry and plum fruit
• Soft, velvety tannins
• Matured in new oak for toasty flavours
• Made in many new world countries, South of France and some Bordeaux estates

Question 26

Describe winemaking for premium Merlot?

Answer 26

• Similarly to Cabernet
• Destemmed and crushed
• Pre-fermentation extraction sometimes used for additional extraction of colour and flavour
• Less rigorous extraction needed during fermentation (more supple skins than CS)
• Maturation: New oak used for flavours and complexity 12 - 18 months in oak is common

Question 27

Describe Pinot Noir grape in for premium wine making

Answer 27

Grape characteristics:

• Thin-skinned, early budding and ripening
• Very old variety => many clones with varying characteristics

Climate:

• Cool to moderate climates, as it is an early ripening variety
• Risk: PN may not ripen fully, leading to vegetal notes like cabbage and wet leaves
• If too hot, flavours become jammy and unattractive

Styles:

• Light and fruity with red cherry notes
• Complex and earthy with flavours of spice and forest floor

Key challenge in vinification: Extracting maximum colour and tannin without overworking the juice else, the elegance of the primary aromas can be lost or overwhelmed

Question 28

Describe entry-level red Burgundy wines

Answer 28

• PN entry-level red Burgundy wines - Very light with marked acidity and a hint of oak for structure
• PN from better sites in the Cote d’Or - Greater intensity and complexity than cheaper alternatives with flavours ranging from delicate and floral, to spicy and more tannic

Question 29

List some regions which produce high quality Pinot Noir

Answer 29

Europe

• Burgundy
• Baden in Germany

New world

• California: Los Carneros and Sonoma
• New Zealand: Martinborough, Marlborough and Central Otago
• Australia: Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula and Tasmania
• South Africa: Walker Bay
• Chile: Casablanca Valley

Question 30

Describe wine making for premium Pinot Noir

Answer 30

• Sometimes destemmed and crushed at the winery
• Typically pre-fermentation maceration will happen to maximise colour and flavour extraction
• Using whole bunches is becoming increasingly popular as it enhances red fruit and floral characters
  
  • The bunches are gradually crushed in a series of punch-down
  • Fermentation continues on skins once they are all broken up
• Fermentation temperature:
  
  • upwards of 30°C to extract more colour, flavour and tannin for longer aged wines
  • Can be fermented at cooler for lighter, fresher styles
• Post-fermentation maceration is usually not used for PN
• Maturation
  
  • 12 - 24 months in oak is common
  • Delicate flavours can be overpowered by oak, so 2nd/3rd fill barrels are often used and small proportion of new oak
• Blending -
  
  • Not usually blended with other varieties
  • Maybe blended with wines from different plots or undergone different winemaking treatments which can help increase complexity or improve consistency

Question 31

Describe impact of age the best Pinot Noir wines?

Answer 31

They can develop in bottle for many years

Gain flavours of forest floor and mushroom

Question 32

Describe Rose winemaking?

Answer 32

Oak is rarely used, main methods:

Direct Pressing

• Black grapes are crushed and pressed in the same way as for white wine, extracting a little colour
• Most delicately coloured rose
• Danger: too much tannins are extracted

Short Maceration

• Black grapes are allowed to macerate for a short time to extract colour and flavour
• Maceration may or may not continue into fermentation
• Free run juice is drained off
• Fermentation continues at a cool temperature

Blending Only permitted in Europe for Rose Champagne

Question 33

Describe wine making for premium Syrah / Shiraz

Answer 33

• Grapes are small with thick skin does not ripen well in cool climate
• Can produce wine in a range of styles from medium body with pepper and fresh black fruits aromas to full body and ripe black fruit aromas with hint of liquorice
• Northern Rhone - coolest climate for Syrah
• Languedoc Roussillon - blended with Cinsault, Mourvedre, Grenache, Carignan
• Hunter and Barossa Valley in Australia (warmer) Heathcote (cooler)
• Other: Chile, South Africa, Hawke’s Bay in NZ, Washington USA In
• Warmer areas:
  
  • vigorous cap management to extract colour and flavour from ripe fruits and complemented with toasty flavour from oak
• In cooler climate (or warm climate but more reserved style)
  
  • Gentler cap management
  • Proportion of whole bunch
  • Post-fermentation maceration to extract and smooth tannins
  • Swapping 225L for 300-500L barrels using older oak to produce more elegant style

Question 34

Describe wine making for premium Grenache

Answer 34

• Thin-skinned grape, late ripening variety
• Suited for warm or hot climates
• High tolerance for draught conditions
• Characteristics: high alcohol, low acidity, full body, red fruit, soft tannins
• Areas:
  
  • Spain: Priorat, Rioja;
  • France: Southern Rhone (CDP)
  • Australia: Barossa Valley, McLaren Vale
• Winemaking:
  
  • Destemmed and crushed on arrival
  • Pre-fermentation maceration is common
  • Some decide to retain proportion of whole bunch to enhance the ripe fruit flavour of the grape
  • Fermentation in stainless steel or concrete vats
  • Gentle cap management
  • Post fermentation maceration not usually used
  • Usually matured in large old oak vessels such as foudres as oak aromas can overwhelm the red fruit flavours
  • Rarely made as varietal wine and in hot climate usually blended with varieties that can better support heat and enhance fruit flavour (e.g. Carignan, Mourvedre)