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PSYC 220 Principles of Learning > Chapter 1: Introduction - Fundamental Themes in the Psychology of Learning & Memory > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Introduction - Fundamental Themes in the Psychology of Learning & Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Who is Aristotle?

A

A keen observer of the natural world who loved data, facts, and figures from which he could infer conclusions.

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2
Q

What is Aristotle’s key interest?

A

Memory

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3
Q

What is the theory of associationism?

A

Argued that memory depends on the formation of linkages (“associations”) between pairs of events, sensations, or ideas, so that recalling or experiencing one member of the pair elicits a memory or anticipation of the other

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4
Q

Who created the theory of associationism?

A

Aristotle

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5
Q

What are the three fundamental laws of associationism?

A

Contiguity
Frequency
Similarity

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6
Q

What is the law of contiguity?

A

Events or items that occur in close proximity to each other in time or space are readily associated with each other

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7
Q

What is the law of frequency?

A

The more frequently two events or items occur together, the more strongly they are associated

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8
Q

What is the meaning of similarity in the theory of associationism?

A

Events or items that are similar are readily associated

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9
Q

What is empiricism?

A

All ides that we have are the result of experience

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10
Q

What did Aristotle argue?

A

Knowledge emerges from experience

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11
Q

What is nativism?

A

The bulk of our knowledge is hardwired in our brain when we are born

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12
Q

Definition of Learning?

A

the process by which changed in behaviour arise as a result of an organism’s experience with the world.

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13
Q

Definition of memory?

A

The organism’s internal record of past experiences, acquired through learning

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14
Q

Who is William James?

A

He taught the first psychology course ever given in America

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15
Q

What was William James especially interested in?

A

In how we learn new habits and acquire new memories

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16
Q

What did William James state about the act of remembering an event, such as a dinner party?

A

To remember the event, it would involve a network of multiple connections between the components of the evening such as tests of food, or smell of perfume.

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17
Q

Who is Ivan Pavlov?

A

Known for developing methods for studying animals that are still in widespread use today.

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18
Q

Definition of Stimulus?

A

A stimulus is any object or event that causes a sensory or behavioural response in an organism

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19
Q

Definition of classical conditioning?

A

Two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response

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20
Q

What is another name for classical conditioning?

A

Pavlovian Conditioning

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21
Q

What is a learning curve?

A

A graph representation of the rate at which you make progress learning new information.

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22
Q

Definition of the independent variable?

A

What is being intentionally changed in the experiment

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23
Q

How are modern studies of classical conditioning usually reported?

A

The results are reported as a learning curve.

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24
Q

Where are the dependent and independent variables plotted on the learning curve?

A

Independent: Horizontal axis

Dependent: Vertical axis

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25
Q

What is Ivan Pavlov’s process of extinction?

A

Pavlov and his assistants showed that they could also weaken an animal’s trained response resulting in the process called extinction.

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26
Q

Definition of Extinction Ivan Pavlov?

A

The process of reducing a learned response to a stimulus by ceasing to pair the stimulus with a reward or punishment

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27
Q

What is Ivan Pavlov’s concept of generalisation?

A

Pavlov also demonstrated that a dog will transfer what it has learned about one stimulus to similar stimulus

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28
Q

Who is Edward Thorndike?

A

A student of William James, and also studied how animals learn associations

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29
Q

What is Operant Conditioning?

A

organisms learn to make responses in order to obtain or avoid important consequences; The behaviour is instrumental in determining whether the consequences occur.

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30
Q

What was Throndike’s most influential study?

A

Observing how cats learn to escape from puzzle boxes.

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31
Q

What is another name for operant conditioning?

A

instrumental conditioning

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32
Q

What did Edward Thorndike observe?

A

The probability of a particular behaviours response increased or decreased depending on the consequences that followed/

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33
Q

What is Edward Thorndyke’s Law of Effect?

A

Suggested that when satisfaction follows an association, it is more likely to be repeated. If an unfavorable outcome follows an action, then it becomes less likely to be repeated.

34
Q

What did Edward Thorndike argue?

A

The psychology of learning should center on the search for the rules describing how, when, and to what degree associations among stimuli and responses are increased or decreased through experience

35
Q

What is nature and what is nurture?

A

Nature: Genetics

Nurture: Environment and upbringing

36
Q

Who is René Descrates?

A

He was the first to write of the concept of emotions and known for his concept of dualism

37
Q

What did René Descrates believe?

A

That much of what we know is innate (genetically hardwired)

38
Q

What was René Descrates a firm believer in?

A

Dualism

39
Q

What is Dualism?

A

The principle that the mind and body exist as separate entities, each with different characteristics and governed by its own laws

40
Q

Definition of reflex arc?

A

An automatic pathway from a sensory stimulus to a motor response

41
Q

Definition of sensory stimulus?

A

Is any event or object that is received by the senses and elicits a response from a person

42
Q

Who is John Locke?

A

Introduced the concept of tabula rasa which is the belief that the mind is a ‘blank slate’ at birth and we are formed and develop from our own experiences with the environment

43
Q

What did John Locke argue?

A

that all knowledge is derived from experience

44
Q

What did John Locke suggest?

A

that children arrive in the world as a black slate (tabula rasa), ready to be influenced by experience and learning

45
Q

Who is John Watson?

A

Considered the founder of behaviourism

46
Q

What is behaviourism?

A

a school of thought that says psychology should restrict itself to the study of observable behaviours and not seek to infer unobservable mental processes

47
Q

What did Watson come to believe in his studies with rats?

A

That all behaviour is learning and a product of our environments

48
Q

What did John Watson argue regarding his study with rats?

A

Rats had learning an automatic set of motor habits for moving through a maze and that these motor habits were largely independent of any external sensory cues.

49
Q

Who is B. F. Skinner?

A

best-known for his influence on behaviourism

50
Q

What did B. F. Skinner believe?

A

Psychologists should limit themselves to the study of observable behaviours that can be learned through experience, and not try to speculate about what is going on in the mind of an animal while it learns

51
Q

What extreme form of Behaviourism did Skinner advocate?

A

Radical Behaviourism

52
Q

What is Radical behaviourism?

A

school go thought that behavior, rather than mental states, should be the focus of study in psychology

53
Q

What did Skinner argue?

A

That humans, like all other animals, function by blindly producing learned responses to environmental stimuli.

54
Q

Who is Erasmus Darwin?

A

He formulated one of the first formal theories on evolution

55
Q

What is the theory of evolution?

A

Living species change over time, with new traits or characteristics emerging and being passed from one generation to the next

56
Q

What theory did Charles Darwin propose?

A

Natural Selection

57
Q

What is the theory of natural selection?

A

The process by which such forces as competition, disease, and climate tend to eliminate individuals who are less well adapted to a particular environment and favor the survival and reproduction of better adapted individuals, thereby changing the nature of the population over successive generations.

58
Q

What did Charles Darwin are about species evolving?

A

That species evolve when they possess a trait that meets three conditions

59
Q

What are the three conditions that Charles Darwin argued that species possess?

A

Inheritable
Variable
Relevant survival

60
Q

What did Edward Tolman argue?

A

that rats are like humans in that they are intrinsically motivated to learn the general layout of mazes by forming what he called a cognitive map.

61
Q

What is a cognitive map?

A

an internal representation of the spatial layout of the external world

62
Q

Definition of intrinsically?

A

The act of doing something without any obvious external rewards

63
Q

What is latent learning?

A

Learning that is unconnected to a positive or negative consequences and that remains undetected (latent) until explicitly demonstrated at a later stage.

64
Q

How did Edward Tolman show value in cognitive maps with rats?

A

showed the value for understanding how rats can apply what they have leaned in novel situations; rates are able to find food mazes by using alternative routes if their preferred route is blocked.

65
Q

What did Edward Tolman argue about rats regarding latent learning?

A

during their free exploration, the rats were learning a cognitive map that they could exploit late – latent learning

66
Q

Old ____ was a greek who thought about association

A

Aristotle

67
Q

____, the dualist, liked to speak of mind-and-body separation

A

Descrates

68
Q

To _____, a baby’s mind was blank, as all empiricists have said. Nativists called him a crank, believing knowledge is inbred.

A

John Locke

69
Q

Who is Clark Hull?

A

He devoted his career to developing mathematical equations by which he hoped to describe the relationships among the factors that influence learning

70
Q

What was Clark Hull’s goal?

A

To develop a comprehensive mathematical model of animal learning that would predict exactly what an animal will learn in any given situation

71
Q

What intensive program of learning did Clark Hull conduct?

A

Program of research on learning in animals and humans, seeking to text and refine his mathematical models.

72
Q

Who is William K. Estes?

A

Established a new sub-discipline of psychology, mathematics psychology

73
Q

What is mathematical psychology?

A

Mathematical equations used to describe the laws of learning and memory demonstrated how quantitate approaches can be applied to observable behaviours in order to understand, and formally model, mental functions

74
Q

Who is W. K. Estes build on ?

A

Clark Hull

75
Q

What did Clark Hull assume about a pigeon trained to peck whenever it sees a yellow light in order to obtain food?

A

Assumed that this training caused the formation of a direct link between the stimulus and the response, so that later presentation of the yellow light evoked the peck-for-food response

76
Q

Who is David Rumelhart?

A

Developed models of learning and thinking that he described as “connectionist network models”

77
Q

What are “connectionist network models”?

A

Mathematical networks of connections between simple processing unites that could be applied to a wide range of problems in understanding human learning and memory

78
Q

In connectionist models, ideas and concepts in the external worlds are not represented as?

A

distinct and discrete symbols but rather as patterns of activity over populations of many nodes (processing units)

79
Q

What is distributed representation?

A

a representation in which information is coded as a patter of activation distributed across many different nodes

80
Q

definition of inheritable traits?

A

traits can be passed from parents

81
Q

definition of natural variability?

A

variations exist in traits exhibited by plants and animals

82
Q

definition of relevance to survival?

A

More offspring are produced than will survive.

Those with beneficial traits survive and reproduce, and those with negative traits will perish

PSYC 220 Principles of Learning (5 decks)

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