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From Flashcardlet > A&P 3 final > Flashcards

A&P 3 final Flashcards

0
Q

Five stages of digestion

A
  • ingestion
  • digestion
  • absorption
  • compaction
  • defecation
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1
Q

Define gastroenterology

A

The study of the digestive tract and the diagnosis and treatment of its disorders

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2
Q

Define ingestion

A

Selective intake of food

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3
Q

Define digestion

A

Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into a form usable by the body

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4
Q

Define absorption

A

Uptake of nutrient molecules into the epithelial cells of the digestive tract and then into the blood and lymph

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5
Q

Define compaction

A

Absorbing water and consolidating the indigestible residue into feces

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6
Q

Define defecation

A

Elimination of feces

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7
Q

Describe mechanical digestion

A

The physical breakdown of food into smaller particles

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8
Q

Describe chemical digestion

A

A series of hydrolysis reactions that breaks dietary macromolecules into their monomers/residues.

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9
Q

What are digestive enzymes composed of?

A

Proteins

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10
Q

Polysaccharides break down into…

A

Monosaccharides

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11
Q

Proteins break down into…

A

Amino acids

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12
Q

Fats break down into…

A

Monoglycerides and fatty acids

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13
Q

Nucleic acids break down into…

A

Nucleotides

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14
Q

Subdivisions of the digestive system

A
  • accessory organs

- gastrointestinal tract

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15
Q

describe gastrointestinal tract

A

-stomach and intestines

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16
Q

how long is the alimentary canal

A

30 ft

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17
Q

describe accessory organs

A
  • teeth
  • tongue
  • salivary glands
  • liver
  • gallbladder
  • pancreas
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18
Q

tissue layers of digestive tract

A
  • mucosa
  • submucosa
  • muscularis externa
  • serosa
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19
Q

layers of mucosa

A
  • inner epithelium
  • lamina propria
  • muscularis mucosa
  • mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue
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20
Q

describe inner epithelium of mucosa

A
  • simple columnar in most of digestive tract

- stratified squamous from mouth through esophagus and in the lower anal canal

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21
Q

describe lamina propria of mucosa

A

loose connective tissue layer

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22
Q

describe muscularis mucosa of mucosa

A
  • thin layer of smooth muscle
  • creates grooves and ridges to enhance surface area
  • improves efficiency of digestion and nutrient absorption
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23
Q

describe MALT

A

mucosa exhibits an abundance of lymphocytes and lymphatic nodules

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24
Q

describe submucosa

A
  • thicker layer of loose connective tissue

- contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves and in some places mucus secreting glands and MALT

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25
Q

describe muscularis externa

A

consists of usually two muscle layers near the outer surface

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26
Q

layers of muscularis externa

A
  • inner circular layer

- outer longitudinal layer

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27
Q

fx of inner circular layer of muscularis externa

A

sphincters that regulate the passage of material through the tract

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28
Q

fx of outer longitudinal layer of muscularis externa

A

responsible for the motility that propels food and residue thru the tract

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29
Q

describe serosa

A

composed of a thin layer of areolar tissue topped by simple squamous mesothelium

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30
Q

describe adventitia

A

a fibrous connective tissue layer that binds and blends the pharynx, most of the esophagus and the rectum into the adjacent connective tissue of other organs

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31
Q

describe enteric nervous system

A
  • “gut brain”
  • a nervous network in the esophagus, stomach and intestines that regulates digestive tract motility, secretion and blood flow
  • over 100 m neurons
  • monitors tension in gut wall and conditions in the lumen
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32
Q

describe mesenteries

A

connective tissue sheets that loosely suspend the stomach and intestines from the abdominal wall

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33
Q

describe parietal peritoneum

A

a serous membrane that lines the wall of the abdominal cavity

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34
Q

describe lesser omentum

A

a ventral mesentery that extends from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver

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35
Q

describe greater omentum

A

a dorsal mesentery that hangs from the greater curvature of the stomach

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36
Q

describe mesocolon

A

extension of the mesentery that anchors the colon to the posterior abdominal wall

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37
Q

name of joint in teeth

A

gomphosis

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38
Q

teeth are made up of…

A
  • Dentin
  • enamal
  • cementum
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39
Q

describe dentin

A

hard yellowish tissue that makes up most of the tooth

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40
Q

describe enamal

A

covers crown and neck

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41
Q

describe cementum

A

covers root of tooth

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42
Q

describe mastication

A

breaks food into smaller pieces to be swallowed and exposes more surface to the action of digestive enzymes

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43
Q

functions of saliva

A
  • moisten mouth
  • begin starch and fat digestion
  • cleanse teeth
  • inhibit bacterial growth
  • moisten food and bind into a blous to aid in swallowing
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44
Q

solutes in saliva

A
  • salivary amylase
  • lingual lipase
  • mucus
  • lysozyme
  • IgA
  • electrolytes
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45
Q

names of extrinsic salivary glands

A
  • parotid
  • submandibular
  • sublingual
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46
Q

syn for swallowing

A

deglutition

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47
Q

phases of swallowing

A
  • buccal-voluntary

- pharyngoesophageal-involuntary

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48
Q

describe peristalsis

A

wave of muscular contraction that pushes the bolus ahead of it

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49
Q

describe chyme

A

soupy or pasty mixture of semidigested food in stomach

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50
Q

name of sphincter entering stomach

A

gastroesophageal sphincter

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51
Q

name of sphincter btn stomach and duodenum

A
  • pyloric

- gastroduedenal

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52
Q

how many muscle layers of stomach?

A

3-longitudinal, circular, oblique

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53
Q

describe gastric pits

A
  • depressions in gastric mucosa
  • lined with simple columnar epithelium
  • 2 or 3 tubular glands open into bottom of each pit
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54
Q

what is needed to absorb B-12?

A

intrinsic factor

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55
Q

cells of stomach

A
  • mucous cells
  • regnerative/stem cells
  • parietal cells
  • chief cells
  • enteroendocrine/G cells cells
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56
Q

mucous cells secrete what?

A

-mucus

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57
Q

parietal cells secrete what?

A
  • HCl
  • intrinsic factor
  • ghrelin
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58
Q

chief cells secrete what?

A
  • pepsinogen

- gastric lipase

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59
Q

enteroendocrine/G cells secrete what?

A
  • hormones-gastrin

- paracrine messengers

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60
Q

vomiting does what to blood pH?

A

makes it more alkaline

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61
Q

diarrhea does what to blood pH?

A

makes it more acidic

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62
Q

fx of pepsinogen

A

digests dietary protein into shorter peptide chains

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63
Q

where is fat digested?

A

10-15% in mouth and stomach- rest in small intestine

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64
Q

where is fat absorbed?

A

into lymph system

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65
Q

fx of intrinsic factor

A

binds Vit B 12 to allow intestinal cells to absorb it

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66
Q

fx of Vit B 12

A
  • needed to synthesize hemoglobin

- prevents pernicious anemia

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67
Q

where does most digestion occur?

A

small intestine

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68
Q

how does the stomach protect itself?

A
  • mucous coat
  • tight junctions
  • epithelial cell replacement
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69
Q

phases of gastric activity

A
  • cephalic
  • gastric
  • intestinal
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70
Q

describe cephalic phase of digestion

A
  • stomach being controlled by brain

- responds to sensory stimulation

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71
Q

describe gastric phase of digestion

A
  • stomach controlling itself

- period in which swallowed food and semidigested protein activate gastric activity

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72
Q

describe intestinal phase of digestion

A
  • stomach being controlled by small intestine

- duodenum responds to volume of chyme to regulate stomach

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73
Q

functions of liver

A
  • protein synthesis: albumin, fibrinogen
  • endocrine secretions: IGF-1, Erythropoeitin
  • metabolism: carbohydrate management and synthesis, lipid, protein
  • storage: glycogen, fat, iron, B Vitamins
  • macrophage activity: kupffer cells
  • secretion: bile
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74
Q

syn for hepatic macrophages

A

kupffer cells

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75
Q

pathway of bile

A

rt/lt hepatic ducts - common hepatic duct - bile duct - duodenum

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76
Q

sphincter btn ileum and colon

A

ileocecal valve

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77
Q

byproduct of hemoglobin breakdown

A

bilirubin

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78
Q

fx of gallbladder

A

storage of bile

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79
Q

where is bile made?

A

liver

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80
Q

right colic flexure

A

hepatic flexure

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81
Q

left colic flexure

A

splenic flexure

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82
Q

venous complex causing hemorrhoids

A

superficial/hemorrhoidal plexus

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83
Q

where are peyer’s patches found?

A

ileum

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84
Q

describe peyer’s patches

A

lymphatic tissue composed of macrophages and lyphocytes

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85
Q

fx of bile

A

fat emullsifier

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86
Q

define lithotripsy

A

use of ultrasonic vibration to pulverize stones without surgery

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87
Q

endocrine secretions of pancreas

A
  • insulin

- glucagon

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88
Q

exocrine secretions of pancreas

A

pancreatic juice-digestive enzymes

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89
Q

what makes up pancreatic juice?

A
  • water
  • enzymes
  • zymogens
  • sodium bicarbonate
  • other electrolytes
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90
Q

fx of pancreatic juice

A

-buffer chyme and continue digestion

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91
Q

stimuli to trigger release of pancreatic juice

A
  • acetylcholine
  • cholecystokinin
  • secretin
92
Q

sections of small intestine in order

A
  • duodenum
  • jejunum
  • ileum
93
Q

name of circular folds in large intestine

A

plicae circulares

94
Q

describe segmentation

A

movement in which stationary ringline constrictions appear in several places along the intestine

95
Q

purpose of segmentation

A

mix and churn

96
Q

describe haustrum

A

pouches of large intestine

97
Q

describe taenia coli

A

longitudinal fibers concentrated in three thickened, ribbon-like strips

98
Q

composition of feces

A
  • 75% water
  • 25% solids
  • 30% undigested fiber
  • 10% fat
  • mucus
  • bacteria and epithelial cells
99
Q

define gametes

A

sex cells

100
Q

define zygote

A

fertilized egg

101
Q

primary sex organs

A

produce gametes-gonads

102
Q

secondary sex organs

A

organs other than gonads that are necessary for reproduction

103
Q

describe external genitalia

A
  • located in the perineum
  • most are externally visible
  • except the accessory organs of female perineum
104
Q

describe internal genitalia

A
  • located mainly in the pelvic cavity

- except testes and some associated ducts in the scrotum

105
Q

describe secondary sex characteristics

A
  • features that further distinguish the sexes and play a role in mate attraction
  • pubic and axillary hair and associated scent glands; pitch of voice
106
Q

male secondary sex characteristics

A

facial hair, course and visible hair on the torso and limbs; muscular physique

107
Q

female secondary sex characteristics

A

distribution of body fat, breast enlargement and relatively hairless appearance of the skin

108
Q

describe androgen-insensitivity syndrome

A
  • XY, however target cells lack receptors for testosterone
  • present phenotypically as female
  • no menstruation or uterus
109
Q

how many pairs of chromosomes do we have?

A

23 pairs

110
Q

which ducts become male?

A

mesonephric/wolffian ducts

111
Q

which ducts become female?

A

paramesonephric/mullerian ducts

112
Q

how does a fetus become female?

A

lack of androgen hormones and mullerian-inhibiting factor(MIF) in utero- all pregnancies are high in estrogen

113
Q

genital tubercle becomes what?

A
  • gland of penis or

- glans clitoris

114
Q

urogenital folds become what?

A
  • urethra of male

- labia minora

115
Q

labioscrotal folds become what?

A
  • scrotum

- labia majora

116
Q

define gubernaculum

A

a connective tissue cord extends from the gonad to the floor of the pelvic cavity

117
Q

when do testes begin descent?

A

as early as 6 weeks in utero

118
Q

define cryptorchidism

A

boys born with undescended testes

119
Q

mechanisms to regulate temperature of testes

A
  • cremaster muscle
  • dartos muscle
  • pampiniform plexus
120
Q

describe cremaster muscle

A
  • strips of the internal abdominal oblique muscle

- enmesh the spermatic cord

121
Q

describe dartos muscle

A

-subQ layer of smooth muscle-when cold contracts wrinkling the scrotum to hold testes against warm body

122
Q

describe pampiniform plexus

A
  • an extensive network of veins from the testes that surrounds the testicular artery and spermatic cord
  • counter current heat exchanger by removing heat from the descending arterial blood
123
Q

describe tunica albuginea

A

white fibrous capsule on testes and ovaries

124
Q

describe interstitial/Leydig cells

A

cells between seminiferous tubules that produce testosterone

125
Q

describe sustentacular/sertoli cells

A
  • cells in between the germ cells
  • protect germ cells and promote their development
  • germ cells depend upon them for nutrients, waste removal, growth factors etc
126
Q

describe blood-testis barrier

A

-formed by tight junctions between sustentacular cells

separates sperm from immune system

127
Q

describe vas deferens

A

muscular tube passing up from scrotum through inguinal canal to posterior surface of bladder uniting with seminal vesicle

128
Q

parts of male urethra

A
  • prostatic
  • membranous
  • spongy/penile
129
Q

male accessory glands

A
  • seminal vesicles
  • prostate gland
  • bulbourethral/cowper glands
130
Q

describe seminal vesicles

A
  • empties into ejaculatory duct

- forms 60% of semen

131
Q

describe prostate gland

A
  • empties thru about 20 pores into the prostatic urethra

- thin milky secretion forms 30% of semen

132
Q

location of prostate gland

A

surrounds urethra and ejaculatory duct just inferior to the bladder

133
Q

location of seminal vesicles

A

pair of glands posterior to bladder

134
Q

location of bulbourethral/cowper glands

A

near bulb of penis

135
Q

describe bulbourethral/cowper glands

A
  • during sexual arousal, they produce a clear slippery fluid that lubricates the head of the penis in preparation for intercourse
  • protects the sperm by neutralizing the acidity of residual urine in the urethra
136
Q

describe benign prostatic hyperplasia/BPH

A
  • noncancerous enlargement of prostate
  • compresses urethra and obstructs flow of urine
  • promotes bladder and kidney infections
137
Q

symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia/BPH

A
  • feelings of urgency
  • feeling of”incompleteness”
  • difficult time urinating
  • occasionally sexual complications
138
Q

second most common cancer in men

A

prostate cancer

139
Q

describe prostate cancer

A
  • tend to be near the periphery of the gland where they do not obstruct urine flow
  • typically unnoticed until they cause pain
  • can metastasize to nearby lymph nodes and then lungs and other organs
140
Q

describe digital rectal exam/DRE

A
  • palpate thru rectum checking for tumors in prostate gland

- trying to check for size and texture changes

141
Q

how is prostate cancer diagnosed?

A
  • elevated levels of serine protease/PSA

- elevated acid phosphatase in blood

142
Q

syn for prepuce

A

foreskin

143
Q

describe smegma

A

waxy secretion produced by the sebaceous glands in the glans and facing surface of the prepuce

144
Q

three cylindrical bodies of erectile tissue in penis

A
  • 1 corpus spongiosum-ventral

- 2 corpora cavernosa-laterally

145
Q

fx of FSH in males

A

stimulates sustentacular cells to induce spermatogenesis

146
Q

fx of LH in males

A

stimulates interstitial cells to produce testosterone

147
Q

what maintains sperm production in adult men?

A

testosterone

148
Q

fx of inhibin

A

suppresses FSH output from pituitary to reduce sperm production without decreasing LH or testosterone

149
Q

source of inhibin

A

sustentacular cells

150
Q

added benefits of prescribing testosterone

A

helps protect against cardiovascular disease and stroke

151
Q

cause of male climacteric/andropause

A

-rise in FSH and LH secretion after age 50

152
Q

describe mitosis

A

a body cell doubles its DNA and then divides to produce two genetically identical daughter cells

153
Q

describe meiosis

A

produces four gametes/haploid cells, each with half the DNA of the diploid cells

154
Q

describe crossing over

A

DNA strands trade portions of strand to create new combinations of genes

155
Q

which stem cell type becomes sperm cells

A

Type B spermatogonium

156
Q

what powers the sperm?

A

mitochondria in midpiece of tail

157
Q

define infertility for men

A

lower than 20-25 million sperm/ml

158
Q

relative contents of semen

A
  • 60% seminal fluid
  • 30% prostatic fluid
  • 10% sperm and spermatic duct secretions
159
Q

ingredients of semen besides sperm

A
  • fructose
  • electrolytes
  • prostaglandins
  • clotting factors
  • serin protease
160
Q

fx of clotting factors in semen

A
  • entangles sperm to make them stick to inner wall of vagina and cervix
  • promotes uptake of sperm-laden clots of semen into the uterus
  • after about 20-30 min breaks down to allow sperm to roam free. :)
161
Q

requirements for sperm motility

A
  • elevated pH(7.5)

- an energy source-fructose etc

162
Q

what causes erection physiologically?

A

parasympathetic triggering of Nitric oxide/NO secretion-vasodilator

163
Q

can ejaculation occur separate from orgasm?

A

yes

164
Q

source of PSA

A

prostate gland

165
Q

where does the male reproductive system interface with male urinary system?

A

at prostatic urethra- 2 ejaculatory ducts merge with ureter to end in the prostatic urethra

166
Q

common causes of erectile dysfunction

A
  • smoking
  • diabetes
  • CAD
  • stress
  • neural
  • drugs and other xenobiotics
  • low testosterone
  • alcohol
167
Q

female internal genitalia

A
  • ovaries
  • uterine tubes
  • uterus
  • vagina
168
Q

female external geintalia

A
  • clitoris
  • labia minora
  • labia majora
169
Q

fx of broad ligament

A

connects uterus to floor of pelvis- wraps in ovaries via ovarian ligament

170
Q

describe infundibulum

A

flared, trumpet shaped distal/ovarian end of fallopian tubes

171
Q

describe fimbriae

A

feathery projections on infundibulum

172
Q

describe ampulla

A

middle and longest part of fallopian tube

173
Q

describe isthmus

A

narrower end of fallopian tube toward uterus

174
Q

describe mesosalpinx

A

the superior portion of the broad ligament that enfolds the uterine tube

175
Q

define uterus

A

thick muscular chamber that opens into the roof of the vagina

176
Q

parts of uterus

A
  • fundus - broad superior curvature
  • body-middle portion
  • cervix-cylindrical inferior end
177
Q

describe pap smear

A

cells removed from cervix and vagina and microscopically examined

178
Q

test for cervical cancer

A

pap smear

179
Q

layers of uterus

A
  • perimetrium-external
  • myometrium-middle muscle layer
  • endometrium-inner mucosa
180
Q

layers of endometrium of uterus

A
  • stratum functionalis

- stratum basalis

181
Q

describe uterine stratum functionalis

A
  • superficial half

- shed during menstrual cycle

182
Q

describe uterine stratum basalis

A
  • deep layer

- stays behind and regenerates a new stratum functionalis with each menstrual cycle

183
Q

describe vaginal rugae

A

transverse friction ridges at lower end of vagina

184
Q

describe vaginal epithelium

A
  • childhood-simple cuboidal

- puberty-estrogens transform to stratified squamous

185
Q

describe vulva

A

female external genitalia collectively

186
Q

describe pudendum

A

external genitalia collectively-male or female

187
Q

erectile tissue in females

A
  • clitoris

- vestibular bulbs

188
Q

describe vestibular bulbs in females

A

-erectile tissue deep to the labia majora

189
Q

breasts are composed of..

A
  • adipose
  • collagenous tissue
  • mammary glands
190
Q

forms of estrogen

A
  • E1 - estrone
  • E2 - estradiol
  • E3 - estriol
191
Q

describe estrogen

A

feminizing hormones with widespread effects on the body

192
Q

define thelarche

A
  • onset of breast development

- earliest noticeable sign of puberty

193
Q

define pubarche

A

-appearance of pubic and axillary hair, sebaceous glands and axillary glands

194
Q

define menarche

A
  • first menstrual period

- requires at least 17% fat in teens; 22% in adults

195
Q

fx of estradiol

A
  • stimulates vaginal metaplasia
  • stimulates growth of ovaries and secondary sex organs
  • stimulates growth hormone secretion-inc height and widening of pelvis
  • feminine physique-deposition of fat
  • makes a girl’s skin thicker
196
Q

fx of progesterone

A

primarily preparing uterus for possible pregnancy in second half of menstrual cycle

197
Q

high levels of estrogen and progesterone do what?

A

suppress FSH and LH secretion thru negative feedback

198
Q

define climacteric

A
  • midlife change in hormone sectretion

- accompanied by menopause

199
Q

define menopause

A

cessation of menstruation

200
Q

what happens when climacteric?

A
  • follicles less responsive to gonadotropins
  • less estrogen and progesterone secretion
  • uterus, vagina and breast atrophy
  • vagina thinner, less distensible and drier
  • thinner skin
  • bone mass declines
  • cholesterol levels rise
  • hot flashes
201
Q

portions of sexual cycle

A
  • ovarian cycle

- menstrual cycle

202
Q

how many eggs remain once hit puberty?

A

400,000

203
Q

how many eggs in fetus?

A

5-6 million

204
Q

fx of FSH

A

stimulates monthly cohorts of oocytes to complete meiosis I

205
Q

describe follicular phase of sexual cycle

A
  • menstruation begins first 3-5 days of cycle
  • uterus replaces lost tissue by mitosis and cohort of follicles grow
  • ovulation around day 14
206
Q

describe luteal phase of sexual cycle

A
  • corpus luteum stimulates endometrial secretion and thickening
  • if no pregnancy, endometrium breaks down in the last 2 days
207
Q

principal steps of ovarian cycle

A
  • follicular phase
  • ovulation
  • luteal phase
208
Q

pituitary hormone most active days 1-14

A

FSH

209
Q

pituitary hormone most active days 15-28

A

LH

210
Q

ovarian hormone most active days 1-14

A

estrogen

211
Q

ovarian hormone most active days 15-28

A

progesterone

212
Q

describe corpus luteum

A

-burst follicle

213
Q

what does corpus luteum produce

A

progesterone and estrogen

214
Q

describe mittelschmerz

A

twinges of ovarian pain during ovulation

215
Q

how much does progesterone increase during luteal phase?

A

10 fold increase

216
Q

phases of menstrual cycle

A
  • proliferative phase
  • secretory phase
  • premenstrual phase
  • menstrual phase
217
Q

describe proliferative phase of menstrual cycle

A

layer of endometrial tissue lost in last menstruation is rebuilt

218
Q

describe secretory phase of menstrual cycle

A

endometrium thickens still more in response to progesterone from corpus luteum

219
Q

describe premenstrual phase

A

period of endometrial degeneration

220
Q

when is the endometrium at its thickest?

A

secretory phase

221
Q

describe menstrual phase of menstrual cycle

A

discharge of menstrual fluid from vagina/menses

222
Q

fx of human chorionic gonadotropin hormone/HCG

A

stimulates growth of corpus luteum to maintain pregnancy

223
Q

source of HCG

A

zygote

224
Q

source of human chorionic somatomammotropin hormone/HCS

A

placenta

225
Q

fx of HCS

A

reduce mom’s insulin sensitivity and glucose usage, leaving more for fetus

226
Q

why would preventing an LH spike mid cycle prevent pregnancy?

A

won’t ovulate

227
Q

why does endometrial lining slough off?

A

levels of estrogen and progesterone drop off significantly

From Flashcardlet (10 decks)

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