A&P Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
(110 cards)
1
Q
What are the main characteristics of living organisms?
A
Maintaining Boundaries Movement Responsiveness Digestion Metabolism Excretion Reproduction Growth
2
Q
What are the three components of homeostatic control variables?
A
Receptor (sensor)
Control Center (brain or spinal cord)
Effector (Feedback response)
3
Q
What does the receptor variable do for homeostasis?
A
Monitors the environment (whether internal or external)
Responds to stimuli
4
Q
What does the control center do in maintaining homeostasis?
A
- Determines what point the variable should be maintained
- Receives input from receptor
- Determines the appropriate response
5
Q
What does the effector do to maintain homeostasis?
A
- Receives output from the control center
- Provides the means to respond
- Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)
6
Q
What is negative feedback?
A
- Most used feedback mechanism in the body
- Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus
- Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change
Example:
Temperature regulation (sweating to cool the body back to normal temperature)
Regulating blood sugar
7
Q
What is a positive feedback?
A
- Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
- May cause an amplifying effect as feedback causes variable to continue in the same direction as initial change
Example:
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
8
Q
What is homeostatic imbalance and why is it bad?
A
- Disturbance of homeostasis
- Increases risk of disease
- Contributes to changes associated with aging
- Control systems become less efficient
9
Q
What can occur if negative feedback systems are overwhelmed?
A
Destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over
Example: Heart Failure
10
Q
What is the standard anatomical position?
A
Standing erect
Feet slightly apart
Palms facing toward with thumbs pointing away from the body
11
Q
What muscle separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity?
A
The diaphragm
12
Q
What is the mediastinum?
A
-A space within the thoracic cavity
-Contains the pericardial cavity
-Surrounds other thoracic organs such as esophagus, trachea, etc.
Pericardial cavity
-Encloses the heart
13
Q
What does the abdominal cavity consist of?
A
Stomach, intestines, spleen and liver
14
Q
What does the pelvic cavity consist of?
A
Urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum
15
Q
Define metabolism
A
Sum total of chemical reactions occurring in the body cells
16
Q
What is an endocrine gland?
A
Ductless glands that empty their hormonal products directly into the blood
17
Q
What are exocrine glands?
A
Glands that have ducts through which their secretions are carried to a particular site
18
Q
Does epithelium have a blood supply?
A
No! But epithelial tissues can have a nerve supply
19
Q
How does epithelial tissue receive its nutrients and oxygen?
A
It receives nourishment via diffusion or absorption from the underlying connective tissues
20
Q
What are serous membranes?
A
Membranes lining closed internal body cavities
-Pleura
-Pericardium
-Peritoneum
Are all serous membranes that line the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities
21
Q
Function of serous membranes?
A
Serous membranes secrete a lubricating fluid to reduce friction from muscle movements
22
Q
What are the three pigments that influence skin color?
A
Melanin
Carotene
Hemoglobin
23
Q
What are the three major types of skin cancer?
A
- Basal cell carcinoma
- Squamous cell carcinoma
- Melanoma (cancer of melanocytes)
24
Q
What is the hypodermis made of and what is its function?
A
- Mostly made of adipose tissue that absorbs shock and insulates
- Anchors skin to underlying structures like muscles
25
Explain the basis of hair color
Hair pigment is made by melanocytes at the base of the hair follicle and transferred to the cortical cells. Different concentrations of melanin produce hair color.
When melanin production decreases, air bubbles replace melanin and hair turns grey
26
Describe the structure, function, and location of sebaceous glands
Sebaceous glands are simple branched alveolar glands that are found ALL over the body EXCEPT in thick skin (palms, soles)
- Secrete an oily substance called Sebum
- Sebum softens and lubricates the hair and skin and prevents hair from becoming brittle
- Slows water loss from skin
- Most important is its bacterial killing action
27
What is the function of serous fluid?
It enables organs, such as the heart and the stomach, to slide across cavity walls and each other without friction
28
True or false:
| The serous membrane is a double-layered membrane created by two separate membranes
False
29
True or false:
All epithelial have two surfaces, an apical surface and a basal surface, that differ in both structure and function. This property is called polarity.
True
30
How are endocrine and exocrine glands different from each other?
Endocrine glands have no ducts
31
In connective tissue, the role of elastic fibers is to ___
Provide flexibility
| -Elastic fibers contain elastin, a rubber like protein that allows them to stretch and recoil like rubber bands
32
The primary blast cell for connective tissue proper is the ____
Fibroblast
33
What are the three main components of connective tissue?
Ground substance, fibers, and cells
34
What is the most common cell type in the epidermis?
Keratinocytes
35
The arrector pili muscle’s predominant, useful function in humans is to
Assisting in the release of sebum from nearby sebaceous glands
36
What represents a difference between eccrine sweat glands and apocrine sweat glands?
The secretions of apocrine sweat glands contain more fat and protein than do the secretions of eccrine sweat glands
37
How do holocrine glands secrete their products?
Holocrine glands secrete their products by rupturing. Sebaceous oil glands are the only example of holocrine glands in the body.
38
Dense microvilli is a modification of the simple columnar epithelium that allows for efficient absorption along portions of the digestive tract
Dense Microvilli
39
What are the four main types of tissue?
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
40
What is in the thoracic cavity of the body?
Chest cavity
| Lungs (left and right pleural cavity) Heart, Pericardium,
41
What are the two types of cells found in nervous tissues? Describe their function
Neuron cell and glial cell
Neurons receive and transmit chemical/electric signals
Glial cells surround the neuron and provide support and insulation
42
What is the function of the stratum corneum?
Closely packed layers of dead cells that acts as a barrier that prevents unwanted materials from entering, and prevents excessive loss of water from exiting the body. Protects from friction and abrasion.
43
What is the function of the stratum basale?
Single layer
| Produces new cells (keratinocytes), protects from UV rays, makes melanin (melanocytes)
44
What type of epithelium is the found in the epidermis?
Statified squamous epithelium
45
Levels of organization in the human body
1. Chemical Level
2. Cellular Level
3. Tissue Level
4. Organ Level
5. Organ System Level
6. Organismal Level
Captain cook took out Sarah’s ovaries
46
What 2 tissue layers comprise the integumentary? Which is vascularized?
The dermis and the epidermis
| The dermis is vascularized
47
The dermis is made of
Dense, irregular connective tissue that houses blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands
48
The epidermis is made of
The epidermis is made of closely packed epithelial cells
49
Which stratum is absent in thin skin? Also known as the epidermis.
The stratum lucidum layer is absent in thin skin.
50
Differences between thin and thick skin
Thin skin contains hair, thick skin is hairless
Most of the body is covered by thin skin
Thick skin is found on palms, soles of feet
51
Captain Cook Took Out Sarah’s Ovaries
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Chemical Level
Cellular Level
Tissue Level
Organ Level
Organ System Level
Organism Level
```
52
Names given to the sides/surfaces of the epithelial cell
Apical and Basal Surface
53
Characteristics of the apical surface of an epithelial cell
Faces out of the body (outside or into lumen)
Avascular (no blood vessels)
Get their nutrients via diffusion
Can contain cilia or microvilli
54
Characteristics of the basal surface side of the epithelial cell
Formed in the deepest layer cells and faces the basement membrane
Serves to anchor the basal layer to the underlying connective tissue
55
Three cell types of the epidermis
Keratinocytes (skin cells) (the PRIMARY cell)
Melanocytes (pigment producing cells)
Langerhans cells (immune cells)
56
The serous membrane has three parts
The Parietal layer: the outer serous that directly lines the inside of the body wall
The cavity/sac/space: an enclosed space between the parietal and visceral layer that is mostly empty
The Visceral Layer: The inner serous layer that lines the organs
57
Thoracic Cavity
Surrounded by the chest muscles, ribs, diaphragm, sternum, and thoracic vertebrae. Contains two subdivisions:
1. Pleural Cavities: Each pleural cavity envelopes one lung
2. Pericardial cavity: Envelopes the heart
58
The space between the right and left pleural cavities is called the
Mediastinum
| Normally occupied by the heart and its surrounding pericardium
59
Superior (Cranial)
Above
Towards the head
(The head is superior to the neck, the knee is superior to the ankle)
60
Inferior (Caudal)
Below
Towards the feet
(The abdomen is inferior to the chest)
61
Anterior (Ventral)
Toward the front (chest, belly) of the body
62
Posterior (Dorsal)
Toward the back of the body
| Back, buttocks
63
Medial
Toward the midline
| The ulna is medial to the radius, the heart is medial to the lungs
64
Lateral
Away from the midline
| The radius is lateral to the ulna, the lungs are lateral to the heart
65
Intermediate
Something that lies between a more medial and more lateral structure
66
Proximal
Closer to where a limb attaches to the body
| The elbow is proximal to the wrist
67
Distal
Further from where a limb attaches to the body
| The ankle is distal to the knee
68
Superficial (External)
Closer to the surface of the body
| Ribs are superficial to the lungs
69
Deep (Internal)
Away from the surface of the body
| The ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and back
70
The body maintains awareness of its internal environment through various types of feedback systems or feedback loops
These feedback systems are
Receptor
Control Center
Effector
71
Metabolism is driven by
The oxygen we inhale and the food we eat
Divided into two phases:
Anabolism and Catabolism
72
Anabolism
Building complex chemical substances from simpler ones
| Synthesizing proteins from amino acids
73
Catabolism
Breaking down complex chemical substances into simpler ones
| Digesting food
74
Anatomy is the study of
Anatomy is the study of structures: Identifying and naming the parts of the body’s various structures and understanding the relationships among them.
Studied chiefly through dissection and imaging techniques
75
Physiology is the study of
Physiology is the study of body functions: learning how the parts of the body work
76
The chemical level of organization
Made of atoms
The smallest units of matter
(Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen)
CHO
77
The cellular level of organization
Molecules DNA-> Cells
78
Organismal Level
A living being
79
Muscle tissue is responsible for body movement!
Muscle tissue is responsible for body movement!
80
Skin pigments: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin all influence skin color
Skin pigments: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin all influence skin color
81
Functions of the skin
- Regulates body temperature
- Protects underlying tissues
- Provides cutaneous sensations
- Excretes body wastes
- Synthesizes Vitamin D
82
Skin aids in thermoregulation in two ways
1. Sweating
| 2. Adjusting blood flow to the dermis
83
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Epidermis
84
Eccrine sweat glands
Coiled and tubular
| Secrete their product directly onto the skin’s surface
85
Cartilage
Avascular
Chondrocytes secrete a chemical known as anti-angiogenesis factor that inhibits blood vessel formation
Cartilage receives its nutrients via diffusion
86
Immature cartilage cells are called
Chondroblasts
87
Mature cartilage cells are called
Chondrocytes
88
Ground Substance
Fills the spaces between connective tissue cells
Can be fluid, gel-like, or calcified
Stores water and contains sugars called GAGS (glycosaminogycans)
GAGS are enormous molecules that trap water
Hyaluronic acid
89
All connective tissues come from embryonic cells known as
All connective tissues come from embryonic cells known as Mesenchymal cells
90
Connective tissue is the most
Abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body
91
The cutaneous membrane is dry while the
Mucous and serous membranes are wet
92
Humans are multicellular, so to function, individual cells must be kept alive
Humans are multicellular, so to function, individual cells must be kept alive
93
Variables are
Variables are factors that can change (blood sugar, body temperature, blood volume)
94
Two major divisions of the body
Axial and Appendicular
| Regional terms designate specific areas within body divisions
95
Axial Region
Head, neck, trunk
96
Appendicular Region
Limbs (legs and arms)
97
Sagittal Plane
Divides the body vertically into left and right parts
| Produces a sagittal section if cut along this plane
98
Midsagittal (Median) Plane vs Parasagittal Plane
Cut was made perfectly on midline vs cut off centered
99
Frontal (coronal) plane
Divides the body vertically into anterior and posterior parts (front and back)
Produces a frontal or coronal section
100
Transverse (Horizontal Plane)
Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts (top and bottom)
Produces a Cross Section
101
Oblique Section
Result of cuts at angle other than transverse
102
Dorsal body cavity contains
Brain and spinal cord
103
Ventral (Anterior) Cavity contains
Thoracic and abdominal cavities
104
Dorsal body cavity contains cranial and vertebral cavity
These are connected and filed with fluid (Cerebral Spinal Fluid)
Brain and cord “float” in these cavities
105
Serosa (serous membrane)
Thin, double layered membranes that cover surfaces in the ventral body cavity
106
Epithelial Cells connect to one another and to their basement membranes through a variety of cell junctions:
Tight junctions
Gap junctions
Desmosomes
107
Tight Junctions
Form where the plasma membranes of adjacent cells are fused together
Creates belt-like bands, think of a zip-lock bag!
108
Desmosomes
Small, dense, spot like bodies that attach two cells together
Hemidesmosome attaches at the basement membrane
109
Gap Junction
Small passageways that allow ions to pass by neighboring cells
110
Basement Membrane
Sandwiched in between the epithelium and connective tissue
Deep layer of connective tissue
Anchors the epithelium to the underlying connective tissue
