Academic Work Flashcards

Question

General Format Of Academic Work

Answer 1

● Introduction 10%: Presenting the research problem in a general form ● Main body 80%: Theoretical framework, testing hypotheses, interpreting results ● Conclusion 10%: Focused presentation of overall results (and connection with existing studies and further recommendations for research)

Answer 2

● Title page ● Abstract ( before introduction; add key words) ● Table of contents ● List of Figures ● List of tables ● List of abbreviations ● Text (introduction-research questions, objectives, methodology, conclusion and discussion) ● List of Literature ● Appendix- Register of the appendix- Appendix 1- 2- 3 ● Affidavit

Answer 3

1.) Preliminaries: title page, abstract (dedication), preface, table of contents, list of tables, list of figures or illustrations, list of abbreviations 2.) Reference material: bibliography, appendices (e.g. interview guideline, category system, content analysis, tables).

Answer 4

Qualitative - **Research Objectives:** - Discovery of new ideas, insights, and feelings - Example: Social media used by political parties in Egypt (how, why) - **Type Of Research:** - Usually exploratory - **Type Of Questions:** - Open-ended, semi-structured, unstructured - **Sample Size:** - Small - **Type Of Analyses:** - Subjective, Interpretive - **Representativeness:** - Limited Quantitative - **Research Objectives:** - Validation of facts, estimates, relationships - Example: Media usage of refugees (which, time spent) - **Type Of Research:** - Descriptive and causal - **Type Of Questions:** - Mostly structured - **Sample Size:** - Large - **Type Of Analyses:** - Statistical, Descriptive, causal - **Representativeness:** - Good

Answer 5

- Data in qualitative research is not characterized by numbers. - Instead, it is: - Textual - Visual - Oral

Answer 6

● classifies features, counts them, and constructs statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed. ● Determines the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population.

Answer 7

● Surveys/ Questionnaires: ask questions (face-to-face interview, telephone, mail, internet) ● Text-Analysis: application of one or more methods for drawing statistical inferences or patterns from text populations. ● Experiment: apply a treatment and measure results (before and/or after) - this is the only method that can demonstrate causal relationships between variables

Answer 8

- Broader study: Involves a greater number of subjects, enhancing the generalization of the results. - Greater objectivity and accuracy: Results are more objective and accurate. - Replication and comparison: Allows for replication and comparison with similar studies. - Summarizing information: Capable of summarizing vast sources of information and making comparisons across categories and over time. - Reduced personal bias: Easier to avoid personal bias of the researcher.

Answer 9

- Less detail on behavior: Results provide fewer details on behavior, attitudes, and motivation. - Lack of contextual detail: Missing the contextual nuances of the subject matter. - Inflexible discovery process: The static and rigid approach leads to an inflexible process of discovery. - Structural bias: Potential for structural bias and false representation due to standard questions matching preconceived hypotheses. - Narrow dataset: Often results in a narrow and sometimes superficial dataset. - Numerical descriptions: Provides numerical descriptions rather than detailed narratives, generally offering less elaborate accounts of human perception.

Answer 10

- Interaction with participants: Provides insights into participants' perceptions through direct interaction. - Description of phenomena: Effective in describing existing phenomena and current situations. - Flexible data collection: Offers flexible methods for data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation of collected information. - Holistic view: Provides a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation. - Research in participants' terms: Engages with research subjects in their own language and on their own terms.

Answer 11

* is the tendency of individuals to present themselves favourably with respect to current social norms and standards. * refers to the tendency of research subjects to give socially desirable responses instead of choosing responses that are reflective of their true feelings.

Answer 12

- „Exclusion“ of the interviewer - Question batteries - Phrasing of the questions

Answer 13

1. Participant Observation 2. Focus Group 3. Interviews 4. Content Analysis 5. Discourse Analysis

Answer 14

- A process enabling researchers to learn about the activities of the people under study in the natural setting through observing and participating in those activities. - Observations enable the researcher to describe existing situations using the five senses.

Answer 15

Challenge 1 What to observe. Challenge 2 How to observe. Challenge 3 How to preserve what is observed. Challenge 4 How to tell what was observed.

Answer 16

1. External Participation: lowest degree of involvement in observation; e.g. observing situations on television or videotape 2. Passive Participation: researcher is present at the scene of action but does not interact or participate (from observation post; assumes the role of a bystander or spectator) like attending a concert 3. Balanced Participation: researcher maintains a balance between being an insider and being an outsider. (main focus – collecting data) 4. Active Participation: researcher generally does what others in the setting do; beginning with observation to learn the rules, becoming actively engaged in the activities of the setting. (The observed people are aware of it.) 5. Total Participation: researcher is a natural participant; highest level of involvement; usually when the researcher studies something in which he or she is already a natural participant.

Answer 17

Adv. ✔ The observation method is an easy method since it usually does not require technical skills. ✔ The Observation method provides high accuracy since the observer directly interacts with the observed. ✔ It is a universal and standard method that is used all over the world. The observation method describes the phenomenon exactly as it occurs in the natural research environment. ✔ In the observation method the very minimum cooperation of the respondent is required. Disadvantages o In the observation method, not everything is observed. Feelings, emotions, and opinions remain unobserved. o Observation is a costly method since it requires a lot of things. o Observation is a very time consuming process, and there are chances that the observer and the observed will lose interest in it after a certain point. o There is absolutely no way of knowing the past life. The researcher has to rely on these documents which are not always accurate.

Answer 18

An informal discussion among a group of selected individuals about a particular topic. Effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in generating broad overviews of issues. There are two broad types of focus group approaches: ▪ A structured approach which is employed more in market research ▪ A less rigid and less structured approach which has emerged from focus group research in the social sciences

Answer 19

- Qualitative research method in which the researcher conducts a collective interview of typically 6-8 participants. - Data generated from interactions between participants. Comments, questions, sharing experiences and views offer insight into participants’ feelings and thoughts within group dynamic. - Group usually homogenous (from similar backgrounds, with similar demographic characteristics), allowing the researcher to address specific target groups e.g., experts on a particular topic. - Insight into new topics with little or no previous research and existing theories or literature. Gauge initial knowledge, experiences, attitudes, and perspectives pertaining to the novel topic. - It is often employed for discovery and brainstorming in exploratory research designs.

Answer 20

- Sampling - Group Dynamics - Moderator - Desirability - Cost and Effort - Quality and Quantity of Questions

Answer 21

▪ Open-ended questions (W-questions) allow for free expression. "What did you do yesterday?“ ▪ No answer categories are provided. ▪ Open-ended questions are mostly used in qualitative studies where details and rather individual, subjective assessments are important. ▪ Open-ended questions lead to answers with larger amounts of text, which are quantified by categorization before being evaluated.

Answer 22

Pros: * Higher complexity /more detailed information * Respondents mention new aspects that the researcher had not thought of / This is especially true for unexplored objects Cons: * Wrong direction or fragmentation of the answers * Distortion of results due to the different levels of eloquence of the respondents * Effort to analyze and interpret data

Answer 23

1. Structured Interview ‘mostly used for quantitative types’ - Wording of each question asked exactly as written - Reduces interviewer’s impact within the situation - Keeps data comparable and easier to analyse - Allows complex questions 2. Semi-structured Interview ‘mostly used for qualitative type’ - General interview guidelines - In between standardised interviews and informal conversation 3. Unstructured Interview (narrative interview) ‘it can be used for qualitative type’ - “informal conversational interview”, no set order to questions - Generates highly individual responses - The interviewer can respond to any situation which emerges during the interview - The information is random.

Answer 24

Question type, Aim, and Example - **Introducing questions** - **Aim:** Introducing the topic - **Example:** Please describe journalism education in your country. What are typical educational pathways in order to become a journalist? - **Follow up questions** - **Aim:** Elaboration on the initial answer - **Example:** How do JE programs work together with other institutions? (e.g., international organizations, journalism unions) - **Probing questions** - **Aim:** Follow up and getting more concrete details - **Example:** Do JE programs work together with human rights organizations? If so, please describe the forms of collaboration. - **Specifying questions** - **Aim:** Follow up and getting more details - **Example:** Do the programs usually include practical parts such as internships, practical seminars, joint projects, or exchanges with the media industry? Please specify. - **Direct questions** - **Aim:** Getting a yes or no answer - **Example:** Do you think there is a balance of theoretical and practical knowledge in JE in your country? - **Indirect questions** - **Aim:** Trying to identify the interviewee's "true" opinion - **Example:** To what extent is it possible for students to specialize in a certain field of knowledge? - **Structuring questions** - **Aim:** Moving to the next subject - **Example:** Moving on to the actual teaching. Please describe teaching styles and methods commonly used in the JE programs in your country. - **Question with future time-reference** - **Aim:** Predictions for the future - **Example:** From your perspective, what will major changes and challenges be in the field of JE in your country in the next couple of years?

Answer 25

With a pretest the researcher verifies the usability of the interview guideline The pretest shows whether the questions are properly formulated and whether the questionnaire user-friendly (wording, sequencing of questions) If necessary, changes are made

Answer 26

Practical aspects of interview transcription: * Playing, rewinding and pausing the digital recording – writing down the interview word by word * Using speech recognition software (e.g. Dragon ) – careful! Most audio recognition software make mistakes – need to control the result. * Try to see transcription not only as tedious time-consuming work, but as the phase in which you engage strongly with your collected data.

Answer 27

* Avoid unintentional interruptions, let people talk, give them time to think, tolerate pauses * Listen carefully, then the interviewee is encouraged to continue * Be respectful; any answer offered will be accepted * Do not be satisfied with yes and no answers; ask follow-up questions * Be appreciative and thank the interview partner when finished and answer any questions they might have about the research

Answer 28

Exprets -> Well-informed citizens -> People on the streets

Answer 29

“Expert knowledge” is what qualified individuals know as a result of their technical practices, training, and experience. Types of Expert Knowledge: * Specific knowledge of content within a research field * Internal knowledge of structures, processes and events in an organisation * Experts are usually identified on the basis of qualifications, training, experience, professional memberships, and peer recognition. * BUT: Broader definitions of expertise may include untrained people who possess direct, practical experience (Burgman et al. 2011).

Answer 30

- Experts are usually identified on the basis of qualifications, training, experience, professional memberships, and peer recognition. - BUT: Broader definitions of expertise may include untrained people who possess direct, practical experience.

Answer 31

A sample is a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire group as a whole.

Answer 32

* “Selective, subjective sampling” * Participants are grouped according to preselected criteria relevant to a particular research question (for example, journalists in a country or media managers) * Sample sizes depend on the resources and time available, as well as the study’s objectives. Eg; influence of news technologies on journalistic practices.

Answer 33

Proportional quota sampling (idea representative sample) ▪ Decision on how many people with which characteristics should be included as participants (characteristics might include age, place of residence, gender, class profession, marital status…) ▪ Assumptions on who might have insights into the research topic ▪ Using recruitment strategies appropriate to the location, culture, and study population– find people who fit these criteria. Eg: Average time of media use.

Answer 34

▪ Participants or informants with whom contact has already been made use their (social) networks to refer the researcher to other people who could potentially participate in or contribute to the study. ▪ Snowball sampling is often used to find and recruit “hidden populations”, that is, groups not easily accessible to researchers through other sampling strategies. ▪ Eg: the media usage of drug users

Answer 35

Purposive: Preselected criteria with a connection to the topic E.g., influence of new technologies on journalistic practices Quota: Guarantees a proportional representation E.g., average time of media use Snowball: Find and recruit hidden populations E.g., the media usage of drug users

Answer 36

Questions must be formulated in such a way that every respondent can understand them. Subtypes of questions in a questionnaire: 1. Factual questions can be answered immediately without too much thought e.g. “Do you own a TV?” 2. Knowledge questions determine respondents’ level of information or knowledge e.g. “Who is the German Interior Minister?” 3. Attitude and opinion questions seek respondents’ opinions about different topics e.g. “Are you for or against abortion?” 4. Behavioural questions determine how respondents behave regarding a certain topic e.g. “How many hours did you watch TV yesterday?” 5. Sociodemographic questions are not content-based and are usually asked at the end e.g. age, sex, education, occupation, marital status, income, religion etc.

Answer 37

Practical Tips for Creating a Good Questionnaire I Question Wording: ✔ Avoid too obvious questions ✔ Consider individual words: “Do you think that.... should ban” or “.... should not allow”? ✔ Think of alternatives: "Are you for Agenda 2010?" "Are you for or are you against Agenda 2010? ✔ Avoid very complex question formulations ✔ Decision between "open questions" and "closed questions“ Context Effects: ✔ Arrangement of the questions in the questionnaire, in particular, transmission from one question to the following question (s) (also: priming or halo effects) Possible Answers: ✔ Type of scaling (e.g., degree of approval) ✔ Rating (very important...not important at all) or ranking (most important...least important). Practical Tips for creating a good Questionnaire II  Introduce respondents to the survey.  "Icebreaker" possibly by simple entry question. Introduction  From general to specific.  Do not jump back and forth between the topics.  The order of topics could influence the answer.  Consider a filter guide. Organization  Possibly as a summary or open question in which the respondents can again comment on the survey topic once again. Final question  As long as necessary but as short as possible. * Concentration period (in general and for special target groups)

Answer 38

- Aim: Measure ‘opinions, attitudes, or behaviors’ in a scientifically accepted and validated manner. - How: by asking participants to show their level of agreement or disagreement with a given statement or a question on a metric scale (usually a series of five or seven answer statements). - Also: they can measure other spectrums, such as frequency, satisfaction, or importance

Answer 39

“Content analysis is an empirical method, with the aim of a systematic, intersubjective and transparent description of content-related and formal-related characteristics of messages”. (see Früh 2011: 27)

Answer 40

Content analysis: One of the most used methods in the field of communication science. Involves the systematic observation of patterns within objects of analysis. Not persons, but media products, such as: Newspaper articles Lyrics of songs TV and radio shows Movies Advertisements Video clips Social media exchanges Blogs

Answer 41

Time Subjectivity Language Costs Procedure Access

Answer 42

Conducting content analysis requires to purposively select and reduce, not to analyze the entire complexity of a text. Only particular characteristics of a text are selected, all others are left aside. Aim 1: To identify and analyze the characteristic and defining elements of media content. Aim 2: To display the connection between individual text elements and selected, comprehensive units of meaning (categories)

Answer 43

is an analytical process in which data, in both quantitative form (such as questionnaires results) or qualitative form (such as interview transcripts) are categorized to facilitate analysis

Answer 44

* a list of codes (or classification rules), * definitions of these codes, and * examples of how to use the codes in practice. It helps researchers to * identify and analyze themes in a data set; * stay organized and consistent during the coding process; * ensure systematic and replicable coding of the data.

Answer 45

1. Field/area 2. Topic selection 3. Problem definition/ Research gap 4. Research purpose 5. Research questions (hypotheses) 6. Theoretical framework/Model 7. Methodology 8. Data collection 9. Data analysis 10. Interpretation of results 11. Presentation of results

Answer 46

Step 1 Identify working field Step 2 Define topic and research question(s) Step 3 Research, reading, evaluating sources Step 4 Planning, writing, structuring Step 5 Presenting and visualizing

Answer 47

*A good topic should interest you and fit the assignment. How to find a good topic- Selecting a Topic: Personal Interest Important: You should be interested in the topic but neutral! Sometimes bad ideas: o Generally: topics that concern you personally o Wars, conflicts (for people from countries involved) o Religion

Answer 48

* Relevant for the future : how can I apply it? Career, professional growth, PhD, etc. * Realistic objectives: how much can I handle? * Not too broad * Having prior knowledge about the subject * Accessible: are literature/sources available?

Answer 49

To narrow the topic down, you can: ● Decide on a limited time period (elections, 2005-2010, etc.) ● Choose specific objects of research (e.g., selected newspapers) ● Find a particular perspective on the issue

Answer 50

The title of an academic research paper can be rather long. It has to be concrete and informative regarding: -Keywords and main claims -Type of work (content analysis, comparative study, etc.) -Time period (if applicable)

Answer 51

- Not a journalistic title; no need to attract wide public attention - There should be no doubts about the content - Logical: easy to find in search engines (key words)

Answer 52

● What are the specific questions you want to answer with your study? ● Are your questions answerable? ● Are the terms you use clear?

Answer 53

● A scientific hypothesis is: an assumption that claims the correlation or derivation between two or more variables. ● The hypothesis must be derived from the research question. ● one hypothesis to each question. A hypothesis is NOT a theory! A hypothesis is either a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon or a reasoned prediction of a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. While a theory is a tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven factors. A theory is always backed by evidence; a hypothesis is only a suggested possible outcome and is testable and falsifiable.

Answer 54

1. Solid foundation of your academic work. 2. Important for readers to follow your arguments and understand your point. 3. Cohesion: logical flow of your ideas and thoughts. 4. Can be adjusted later if necessary. 5. Helps define the direction of your work (for e.g., which sources, definitions, theories, … are needed).

Answer 55

Introduces the subject and the problem that is discussed in the paper. It sets the context for the study and explains its aims. ● Provide the main reasons why you undertake the study (e.g., research gap, new method, additional data etc.) ● Explains the aim of your research and clearly state the research question(s) ● Specify how the research contributes to the field or advances knowledge ● Briefly (!) outline the state of research and the background of your study (refer to relevant studies to support your arguments) ● Give an overview of the paper‘s composition (e.g., Chapter 1 discusses…, Chapter 2 is aimed at…, Chapter 3 is devoted to…)

Answer 56

The main body is the heart of your paper. It contains the most important information supporting your arguments. It develops your idea, discusses the literature and presents your findings. Possible content: ● Literature review ● Methodology ● Results of the research ● Discussion of the results

Answer 57

Describes the most important findings of the paper in the context of the formulated problem. By this time it should be clear to the reader how you reached your results, how you interpreted them and how you came to your conclusions. The conclusion is directly related to your research question(s) and the stated purpose of the study.  Elaborate on the broader implications of the research.  Make specific recommendations for future research to further advance the field of study (unanswered research questions).  Do not simply summarize again the results; instead, synthesize them in a concise way that the reader will remember.  Do not to overgeneralize the results, as well as avoid suggestions or conclusions that the research doesn’t really support.  Do not add new information to a conclusion. If something is important, put it in the main body.

Answer 58

Chapter headings structure the text. They refer to the information that is discussed there. In doing so, headings guide readers through the paper. Guidelines: * The heading system should be clear and logical. * The wording of headings and sub-headings should be alike, but not too similar. * If you introduce a new level, it should have at least two subchapters (otherwise none subchapter)!

Answer 59

WHY and WHEN should you visualize? * Simplify and illustrate complex issues. * Compress comprehensive information (to keep essential data). * Outline and clarify key points (arguments, correlations). * Increase attention of the reader Essential elements: * In-text explanation * Self-explanatory information * Legend (if necessary) and title * The information source Illustrations should be * unambiguous, * meaningful and * efficient.

Answer 60

HOW can you find relevant sources? 1. Key Word Search Tip: Create a list of key words for your topic. 2. Systematic Search * Based on your topic and key words you systematically search all literature lists and catalogues for all relevant sources. 3. Snowball Method * Going from one source to the next by searching its footnotes and references for further relevant sources.

Answer 61

+ Quick and efficient search of newest sources. Finding sources that might not be included in the library catalogues. - Can lead to irrelevant literature (“dead end“). Can be exclusive – only one “school of thought“.

Answer 62

Currency (Are the sources timely?) Relevance (Does the research topic contribute to academic discource?) Authority (Is the reputation of the authors/publishing institutions credible?) Accuracy (Is the infornmation in your source reliable and correct?) Purpose (Why does this source exist, what is its point of view?)

Answer 63

- Correct and critical selection of literature. - Literature must be relevant to your arguments. - Diverse and primary: books, essays in anthologies, peerreviewed journal articles (both print and online)… -Contemporary: find the latest essential / most important literature on a topic. - Qualitative: evaluate source quality using the CRAAP-Test - Always start with the current state of research!

Answer 64

is the list of all sources that have been cited. * It should be in alphabetical order by author/ editor. * The items in the list appear at least once in the footnotes. * There is only one list of references per essay/ thesis. * For correct bibliographical entries, make sure to consult the IMS Citation Guidelines.

Academic Work Flashcards

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