actual final exam Flashcards
(149 cards)
1
Q
earth as a 24 hr clock - when did oldest rocks, first fish, first plants, dinosaurs, ice age, and modern man happen?
A
oldesr rocks - 10:27 am
first fish - 11:53 pm
plants - 11:54 pm
dinosaur - 11:57 pm
ice age - 11:59.2 pm
modern man - 11:59.9 pm
2
Q
what is taxonomy
A
the process of grouping species into higher and higher divisions based on similar characteristics
3
Q
order of taxonomy
A
kingdom - phylum - class - order - family - genus - species
4
Q
if a fossil is discovered that belongs to a known order, what is true?
A
then everything above that must exist (class, phylum, kingdom)
5
Q
if an extinction wipes out up to a known order, what is true?
A
then everything below that must also be extinct (family, genus, species)
6
Q
species higher up on the taxonomy are ___ _____ to large disturbances
A
more resistent
7
Q
cambrian period and biodiversity
A
545 million years ago
an “explosion” of diversity in marine phyla
unknown exactly why, but likely some large geologic event that disrupted the environments in which the species were adapted
8
Q
mass extinction
A
loss of more than 25% of the families in a kingdom can lead to
mass extinction
mass extinction events have removed 60-90% of the species that have ever
existed on Earth
9
Q
hypotheses for mass extinction events
A
changes in plate tectonics (# of continents and climatic changes)
changes in ecosystems
volcanic causes (impact weather, climate, flood basalts)
meteorite impacts
10
Q
impact of volcanic eroptions on climate and atmosphere
A
ozone reduction (Cl), global warming (CO2 and H2O), global cooling (blocking sunlight), acid rain (SO2)
11
Q
flood basalt eruptions and extinction
A
linked to Permian extinction
85% of all marine species
70% of all terrestrial species
Cretaceous extinction
probably part of what killed the dinosaurs
12
Q
meteorite extinctions
A
craters aren’t well preserved because of erosion
13
Q
modern extinctions
A
initiated by humans
migration patterns, industry, hunting
14
Q
extinction over the past 10,000 years
A
73% of large mammals
66% of large birds
(bc of the end of the ice age and humans)
15
Q
insured loss by diff disasters
A
hurricane - 35%
thunderstorm/tornado/hail - 25%
flood - 18%
blizzard - 15%
earthquake - 3%
wildfire - 2%
windstorms 2%
16
Q
early earth was most like which planet
A
venus - volcanic activity, CO2, and hotter temps
17
Q
where did the CO2 from early earth go
A
80% in rocks, some dissolved, some are in living things
18
Q
how do scientists know what past climates were?
A
examining changes in fossil composition - O2 isotipe ratio in shells
19
Q
O2 isotopes
A
16O, 17O, 18O
16O is most common
evaporation from ocean favors lighter isotopes
16O and 17O are mostly on land and 18O is in the sea
lower 18O means warmer temps
20
Q
what factors lead to changes in global climate
A
plate tectonics (land mass at the poles leads to ice sheets and colder climates)
N-S alignment of continents (more evaporation, more snow because blocks EW flow of warmer currents)
21
Q
shorter term climate changes
A
melting of ice and rising ocean temps
el nino/la nina - cycles of warming/cooling in the pacific ocean
large volcanic eruptions - reflect incoming solar energy
22
Q
human influence on climate change
A
burning fossil fuls, land clearing by burning
23
Q
greenhouse gases
A
H2O, CO2, methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), (ozone O3)
24
Q
water vapor responsible for __% of greenhouse effect
A
0.75
25
greenhouse gases produce positive feedback loops - example
more warming - more evaporation - more H2O in the atmosphere - more warming
26
CO2 as a greenhouse gas
small changes in the amount of CO2 have a much larger impact
27
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
100’s of scientists meeting and reporting their findings on climate change
assess current models/predictions
report areas of uncertainty and high-level findings
28
what percent of all warming since 1950 is caused by humans
0.9
29
probabilty that current climate change is due to natural causes
<5%
30
how much could global temp change by 2100
1-6%
31
percent chance of doughts, hurricanes, and extreme tides increaseing by 2100
>60%
32
percent chance of more frequent heat waves, heavy rainfall
>90%
33
how much are sealevels projected to rise
7-23 inches
34
climate change mitigation options
create greener tech, place limitations on emissions, air scrubbing, grow more algae, geoengineering to reflect more energy away from earth
35
avg death toll in US bc of fires
~11 1910-2020
~18 since 2000
36
percent of fires caused by lightning and natural factors
0.05
37
average cost of fire suppression per year and percent it is expected to increase by 2050
$2.9B/yr
increase 42%
38
how fires are started - by percent
43% unintentional
26% undetermined
18% intentional
5% under investigation
5% act of nature
5% other
39
miramichi fire
1825 in MA and CAN
little rain all summer
strong winds spread camp fires
burned 3.9 million acres
killed 160-500 people
40
hinkley fire
1894 in Hinkley, MN
summer drought
small fires combined
200,000 acres burned
>418 people died
41
great fire of 1910
Idaho and Montana
small blazes andn extreme winds
killed 86 people
3 million acres burned
42
yellowstone fire
1988
36% of park burned
9 fires caused by humans, 42 by lightning
43
what is fire
rapid combustion
combination of O2 with carbon, hydrogen, and other elements in a chemical
reaction that produces light, heat, and flame
44
chemical process of fire
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> CO2 + 6H2O + heat
45
fire stages
preheating, pyrolysis, flaming combustion, glowing combustion
ALL HAPPENING AT THE SAME TIME IN DIFF PARTS OF FIRE
46
preheating (fire)
water is expelled from wood/fuel
this is accomplished through:
flames (nearby fires)
long periods of dryness (lack of rain, drought)
47
pyrolysis
thermal degradation of the wood cellulose
gives off flammable gases & water vapor
plus mineral residue, tars, etc. -> ash
gas ignites into flame in the presence of O2
48
flaming combustion
stage of greatest energy release
highly efficient and predominates in windy environments
49
how does wind accelarate fire spread
bringing in more oxygen
heating up air to the point of igniting other fuel
spreading material already ignited
50
types of heat transfer (most to least efficient)
radiation (energy released directly from flames in the form of radiant heat)
convection (warming of air molecules)
conduction (heat moves inward thru wood by physical contact of wood
molecules
- inefficient bc wood is a poor conductor)
51
coals
wood is slowly consumed in an
oxidation reaction
52
factors controlling wildfire propagation
wind speed/direction/strength
fuel type (some trees burn at higher/lower temps)
topography (plant distribution, steep slopes promote convective heat transfer
climate (mediterranean climate is most at risk bc of long dry season)
53
Northern CA fires in 2018
8,527 total fires during the season
1.9 million acres burned
98 civilians and 6 firefighters killed
factors: extreme drought and high winds
54
flood monitoring
stream gages measure stream height and discharge rate (work by emptying water into wells with the same water level and measuring that)
satellite data
55
flash flood
very rapid rise in stream levels
56
occur in which stream beds
dry, semi-arid regions with clay-rich soil, infrequent precipitation, very little infiltration
57
why are flood floods so hazardous
unexpected by the public, short notice, highly erosive & damaging
58
flash flood in Pittsburgh 2011
happened during rush hour and flooded roadways
1.79 inches of rain in 30 min
208 olympic swimming pools of water
10 feet of water rose on the roadway
killed 4 people
59
flood mitigation
structures, effort, and policies to minimize flooding effects and hazards
60
flood control
floodway (area designed to handle flood water), floodwall (stabilizes bank and is a barrier to flood water), dams (holds back potential flood waters), channelization (modifying a channel improve water capacity), levees (prevents flooding from small changes in stream flow)
61
what is a flood
the volume of river/stream flow exceeds natural barriers and/or the levels of flood preparedness
62
flooding effect on upstream of a river
rapid rise and fall of water level
63
flooding effect on downstream of a river
slower rise and fall, but larger area affected
64
severity of floods as a natural disaster - fatalities, cost, # of towns impacted
most chronic and costly natural hazard in US
~90 fatalities/yr
$180-500 million (1-2% of US GDP)
3,800 towns located in flood plains
65
costliest US floods
2005 - Katrina $16.2 billion
1993 - Missippi floods $12 B
2017 - Hurricane Harvey $9 B
8 of top 10 costliest caused by hurricanes
66
deadliest US floods
1889 - Johnstown, PA - 2,209 deaths
2005 - NOLA (Katrina) - 1,833 deaths
1928 - St. Francis Dam failure - 431 floods
67
natural flood severity factors
rainfall
infiltration rate (soil types)
climate
season
vegetation
68
human-made flood severity factors
urbanization (impervious surfaces)
slope modification
timber industry
flood control measures
agriculture
69
streams/rivers and flooding
people/infrastucture located alone streams
housing, agriculture, water supply, transportation
70
stream flow factors
width - bank to bank (m or ft)
depth - water surface to bed (m or ft)
discharge (Q) - volume/time - m^3/sec
drainage basin - all land area sloping toward a particular discharge point
71
stream flow
relationship between precipitation rate and infiltration ratedetermines how much water remains on the surface
72
infiltration capacity
capacity of a soil to absorb water
varies by soil type, condition
73
if precipitation rate is greater than the infiltration capacity of the ground
increased run off, increased flooding potential
74
factors leading to high infiltration rates
coarse soil, well-vegetated land, low soil moisture, porous topsoil
75
poor infiltration factors
impermeable crusts in the soil, salt layers, sold weather, compaction, paved surfaces
76
hydrograph
discharge rate versus time
measured by a stream gauge
varies with infiltration capacity and rainfall amount
77
flooding frequency
larger floods are more rare
"100 year flood" = 1% chance in any given year
78
1936 pittsburgh flood causes
- prolonged precipitation (snow & rain)
- high intensity, shorter duration rains
- certain areas had large flash floods
- steep slopes, thin soil cover, low vegetation
79
1936 pittsburgh flood aftermath
Ohio river crested at 46 feet
reports were lower so lots of people didn't evacuate
108 dead in PA
135,000 homeless
$250 million in damage
80
policy consequences of 1936 flood
flood control acts of 1936 and 1938
81
Flood control act of 1936
full federal funding for large civil works projects (dams, levees, etc)
recognized flood control was a federal responsibility
82
flood control act of 1938
army corps of engineers had the right to acquire land for flood control using eminent domain
later amendments stipulated that the ACE limit construction and imcorporate recreational functionality
83
2004 pittsburgh flood
caused by remnants of Hurricane Ivan
5-9" inches of ran
dams and storm drainage ponds captured much of the water, but there was still flooding and damage
84
Largest death toll from a hurricane in the US?
The 1900 hurricane in Galveston, TX, killed over 6,000 on Galveston Island and more than 10,000 in total.
85
2005 Hurricane Season
Worst on record until 2020. 27 named storms, 13 hurricanes, and 7 major hurricanes, including four Category 5 storms (Emily, Katrina, Rita, Wilma)
86
What was the impact of Hurricane Floyd in 1999?
Hurricane Floyd, a 1999 Category 3 hurricane, caused $5.6 billion in losses in North Carolina and resulted in 19 fatalities.
87
What is the average number of named storms in the Atlantic Ocean per season?
The average is 10 named storms per season, with about 6 becoming hurricanes.
88
What is the typical hurricane season duration?
The hurricane season runs from early June to late November. The largest storms typically occur from August to early October.
89
Cyclone Bhola
Bangladesh, 1970, killed 500,000
90
How has the damage changed in last 100 years
Fatalities have dropped. Insured property loss has skyrocketed.
91
Hurricane Floyd
(1999) caused $5.6 billion losses even as a Category 3.
92
Do weaker storms impact larger areas
yes
93
Where are storms called hurricanes
Atlantic Ocean, Eastern Pacific Ocean
94
Hurricane Seasonal Averages
10 named storms, 6 hurricanes, two major hurricanes
95
Where are storms called typhoons
Western Pacific Ocean
96
Typhoon Seasonal Averages
16 named storms, 9 becoming typhoons,
97
Why are there more typhoons
Waters off central america are warmer, more open ocean space to grow
98
Where do they call storms cyclones
Indian Ocean
99
What are the stages of storm development?
The stages include tropical wave (initial disturbance), tropical depression (organized thunderstorms), tropical storm (named), and hurricane (well-defined structure with winds > 74 mph).
100
Tropical Wave Stage
First Stage | Initial low pressure disturbance, unorganized and moving west, less than 20 mph
101
Tropical Depression or Disturbance Stage
Second Stage | A moving mass of thunder storms, starting to organize, assigned a number, winds less than 39 mph
102
Tropical Storm Stage
Third Stage | Storm gets a name (yay), has a rotating motion, winds 39- 74 mph
103
Hurricane Stage
Fourth Stage | Well defined circular structure, large rain bands, central eye of low pressure first forms. Winds over 75 mph, increasing up to 150 mph
104
105
How does the naming work
If they enter the tropical storm stage (winds 39- 74) they get named. Names alternate male/female starting with A
106
Wher do many Atlantic Storms form?
Off the coast of Africa. Between 5 and 10 degrees lattitude
107
True or false: Storms usally form near equator
False!!!!!!!!!!!!!
108
What are three Critical Conditions for Tropical Wave, also what is the tropical wave?
Tropical wave is:Initial low pressure disturbance, unorganized and moving west, less than 20 mph. Critical formation conditions are: Calm wind patterns lasting for 100s of miles and several days (large upper level winds prevent storms) Warm water >80 degrees surface and 200 feet below. Neccessary for large amounts of eveaporation Vertical Atmospheric Disturbance* Serving as a spark for the Hurricane, caused by interaction of westerly winds with easterly trade winds, "allows a pathway to form for moisture transport from sea to upper atmosphere"
109
What is the role of upper-level winds in hurricane formation?
Large upper-level winds can prevent the storm from organizing, while vertical disturbances allow moisture transport from the sea to the upper atmosphere.
110
What is the significance of the interaction between westerly mid-latitude winds and easterly trade winds?
This interaction creates a pathway for moisture transport, which is crucial for storm formation.
111
How is summer of the power generated?***
Lots of heat energy from the condensation of water
112
How much energy is realesed from a moderate (cat 2) hurricane, measured in hydrogen bombs or in US energy demands
Equivalent to 100's of hydrogen bombs and US energy demands for 6 months
113
Hurricane growth process goes on for how long
Until energy is dissipated over land
114
Global warning increasing sea surface temp by 1 degree celsisu could mean:
3-5 more atlantic hurricanes per year, and they could be 30 % more powerful
115
What is the 'positive feedback loop' in hurricane growth?
Stronger winds lead to more cyclonic motion, which draws up more moisture and heat from the sea, resulting in even stronger winds.
116
Cross Section of hurricane
Add image here
117
What are the main components of a hurricane's structure?
Hurricanes have rain bands spiraling around a central low-pressure eye, with the greatest winds in the eye wall. Forms a large convection cell with both vertical and counter clockwise rotation
118
What are the main components of a hurricanes winds
Moist, warm air is drawn up in the eye wall and within the spiraling arms, while cool, dry air is drawn down through the eye. Forms a large convection cell with both vertical and counter clockwise rotation
119
Name of Scale for hurricanes, what it measures
The Saffir Simpson Scale is a function of wind speed, storm surge, and potential damage
120
What is category 1 on the Saffir Simpson Scale
Winds: 74-95, No real damage to building structures. Minor damage to buildings. Considerable damage to vegetation.
121
What is category 2 on the Saffir Simpson Scale
Winds: 96-110 Some structural damage to small residences.
122
What is category 3 on the Saffir Simpson Scale
Winds: 111-130 Mobile homes are destroyed. Much structural damage to small buldings. Flooding near the coast.
123
What is category 4 on the Saffir Simpson Scale
Winds: 131-155 Complete roof structure failure on small residences. Major erosion of beach. Major damage to lower floors of structures.
124
What is category 5 on the Saffir Simpson Scale
Winds: >155 Complete roof failure and major damage to all structures located less than 15 feet ASL.
125
What is the primary cause of fatalities during hurricanes?
90% of all fatalities are caused by storm surge
126
What factors contribute to storm surge fatalities?
Force of waves and debirs, hydraulic lift under structures, and reflected wave energy from man-made structures.
127
What factors contribute to storm surge severity?
Wind speeds pushing water onto land, tide stage at hurricane landfall, and low pressure (low pressure causes water to dome up under hurricane center )
128
What are the two types of storm surge?
Flood surge (water brought onto land) and ebb surge (water flowing off land to sea).
129
What is the impact of low pressure on storm surge?**
Lower pressure causes more water to dome up under the hurricane center.
130
What type of damage is typically caused by hurricane winds?
Wind damage can lead to loss of power and utilities and affects larger areas than storm surge.
131
What is the effect of the hurricane's eye wall on wind intensity?
The eye wall contains the most intense winds and can generate short-lived tornadoes called 'mini-swirls'.
132
What is hurricane wind velocity (HWV)?
HWV is the speed of the storm's counterclockwise winds, quoted when assessing the storm's category
133
What is storm center velocity (SCV)?
SCV is the speed at which the storm is moving over ocean or land, commonly ranging from 5 to 60 mph.
134
What is the difference between coast-parallel and coast-normal tracks of hurricanes?
In coast-parallel tracks, the storm moves along the coast, bringing flood and ebb surges; in coast-normal tracks, the storm moves perpendicular to the coast, producing a large flood and then ebb surge.
135
What is the significance of the right side of a coast normal hurricane?
The strongest winds are on the right side of the storm, producing a zone of higher damage off-center to the right of the storm track.
136
How does the height of structures affect wind damage during a hurricane?
Winds increase with height due to less frictional drag from the ground, posing a problem for tall buildings.
137
What trend has been observed regarding hurricane intensity over the past 20 years?
Intensity has risen noticeably.
138
How many hurricanes on average form in the north atlantic, and how many make landfall in the United States each year?
About 6-7 hurricanes, about 2 hurricanes
139
What proportion of the most active hurricane years since 1950 have occurred since the mid-1990s?
8 of the 10 most active years.
140
What challenges exist in determining whether tropical storm activity has increased over time?
Changes in observation methods complicate the assessment.
141
What technological advancements have improved storm monitoring?
Improved satellite sensors and Doppler radar.
142
What is the typical timescale for monitoring a storm's final movements before landfall? What is used for monitoring?
Hours to day, Doppler Radar
143
What do we use to watch hurricanes spawn and develop, and what is the timescale
Sattelites, days to weeks timescale
144
What instruments do planes use to gather data about hurricanes?
Drop-sonde instruments measure vertical structure, wind speeds, pressure, and temperatures.
145
What does the cone of uncertainty represent in hurricane forecasting?
he probable path of the storm center, not the size of the storm.
146
Name the costliest hurricane in U.S. history and its cost in 2022 US dollars.
Hurricane Katrina, $190 billion.
147
Hurricane Andrew
1992, Landfall in Florida (Cat 5) and then again in LA (Cat 3) Costliest at the time ($27 billion), with extensive damage in Florida and Louisiana, including storm surges up to 23 ft. The structure of buildings influenced damage severity.
148
Hurricane Katrina
(2005): Cat 5 on second landfall, Costliest ever ($190 billion), causing catastrophic flooding of New Orleans due to levee breaches, with over 1,200 deaths. Public officials blamed for failure. Only called Cat 5 a day before landfall, which is when evacuation declared. much of city below sea level.
149
Hurricane Maria
(2017): Devastated Puerto Rico, causing widespread damage, long-term power outages, and high death tolls (~2,200+)
