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Biology 🧫 > Adaptations for Nutrition > Flashcards

Adaptations for Nutrition Flashcards

1
Q

What is autotrophic nutrition?

A

The manufacture of complex organic compounds from simple inorganic compounds using an energy source.

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2
Q

What are the two types of autotrophic nutrition?

A

Photoautotrophic- energy source is solar eg plants.
Chemoautotrophic- energy source is chemical eg extremophiles.

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3
Q

What is heterotrophic nutrition?

A

The consumption and digestion of complex organic compounds.

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4
Q

What are the three types of heterotrophic nutrition?

A

Saprotrophic- secretes enzymes to externally digest food and absorbs the products of digestion by diffusion across their cell membranes eg fungi.
Parasitic- feeds on host for most of its life cycle, causing harm eg tapeworm.
Holozoic- ingests complex molecules, digests and absorbs the products and assimilates the products into useful molecules, egesting undigested molecules eg humans.

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5
Q

What is assimilation?

A

Building up the products of digestion into living tissues eg amino acids -> proteins.

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6
Q

What is egestion?

A

The removal of undigested molecules from the body.

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7
Q

What adaptions does the amoeba have for nutrition?

A

Holozoic, ingests by pinocytosis, digests by fusing with a lysosome and egests by exocytosis.

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8
Q

What adaptions does the hydra have for nutrition?

A

Holozoic, one opening for ingestion and egestion.

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9
Q

What adaptions does the earthworm have for nutrition?

A

One way digestive path, eats and digests simultaneously, digests food mechanically and chemically. Has specialised areas such as the crop to store food and the gizzard to grind food.

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10
Q

Describe the structure of the gut

A

Serosa- a layer of connective tissue
Muscularis- contains a layer of circular muscle and a layer of longitudinal muscles for peristalsis
Sub-mucosa- contains a rich supply of blood vessels and nerves
Mucosa- innermost layer, epithelium is folded for a large surface area, secretes mucus
Lumen

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11
Q

Why is mucus secreted in organs?

A

To lubricate the food and protect against autolysis of the tissue.

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12
Q

What is the extra layer of muscle in the muscularis of the stomach?

A

Oblique.

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13
Q

What is the function of the oesophagus?

A

To push food from the buccal cavity to the stomach by peristalsis.

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14
Q

What is the function of the stomach?

A

Muscular sack which expands to accommodate food. Churns and mixes food and the initial hydrolysis of proteins occurs here.

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15
Q

What is the function of the duodenum?

A

Neutralisation of stomach acid, a point of entry for pancreatic juice and bile. Digestion and some absorption.

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16
Q

What is the function of the ileum?

A

Completion of digestion and absorption of the products of digestion.

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17
Q

What cells does the stomach contain?

A

Chief cells which secrete pepsinogen.
Parietal cells which secrete hydrochloric acid.
Goblet cells which secrete mucus.

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18
Q

What are the glands in the duodenums submucosa?

A

Burners glands which secrete alkaline mucus to neutralise the acidic chyme of the stomach.

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19
Q

What vessels does the submucosa of the ileum contain?

A

Blood vessels and lymph vessels to transport products of digestion.

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20
Q

What parts of the gut have villi?

A

The duodenum and ilium to increase surface area for absorption of nutrients.

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21
Q

What is the function of the hepatic portal vein?

A

To transfer glucose and amino acids to the liver.

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22
Q

What is the function of the lacteal in the villi?

A

To transport fats via the lymphatic system in the blood.

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23
Q

What are the adaptations of the villus for absorption?

A

Folded epithelium with microvilli to maximise surface area
Presence of lacteals for transport of fats
Dense capillary network to maintain a concentration gradient
Epithelial lining is one cell thick for a short diffusion pathway

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24
Q

What chemicals are secreted in the mouth?

A

Mucus- glycoprotein lubricant
Salivary amylase- starch into maltose
Lysozyme- enzyme that kills bacteria
Mineral ions- help build enamel and neutralise acid

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25
Q

What chemicals does the stomach secrete?

A

Hydrochloric acid- kills bacteria and activates pepsinogen into pepsin
Pepsinogen- inactive form of pepsin to prevent autolysis of stomach tissue

26
Q

What do endopeptidases do?

A

They hydrolyse peptide bonds between specific amino acids in the middle of the polypeptide, creating smaller polypeptides to make protein digestion faster.

27
Q

What do exopeptidases do?

A

They hydrolyse terminal peptide bonds creating smaller dipeptides or amino acids.

28
Q

What is secreted in the intestines?

A

Bile
Pancreatic juice
Mucus
Brush border enzymes

29
Q

What enzymes are in pancreatic juice?

A

Lipase, amylase, exopeptidase and endopeptidase.

30
Q

What enzymes are in the brush border?

A

Sucrase, maltase, lactase, dipeptidase and enterokinase.

31
Q

How does carbohydrate digestion take place?

A
  1. In buccal cavity, salivary amylase hydrolyses starch into maltose
  2. Pancreas secretes amylase which hydrolyses starch into maltose
  3. Brush border enzymes hydrolyse disaccharides (sucrase hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose, maltase hydrolyses maltose into two alpha glucoses, lactase hydrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose)
  4. Glucose and other monosaccharides pass are absorbed into epithelial cells by co-transport with Na+. Monosaccharides then pass into capillaries by facilitated diffusion and transported to liver via hepatic portal vein
32
Q

Where does carbohydrate digestion take place?

A

In the mouth and the small intestine.

33
Q

How does lipid digestion take place?

A
  1. Liver produces bile which is secreted from the gall bladder to the duodenum via bile duct.
  2. Pancreas produces and secretes lipase into the duodenum
  3. In the small intestine, bile emulsifies the lipids by breaking down large fat droplets into smaller fat droplets and lipase hydrolyses triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol
  4. Fatty acids and glycerol then diffuse into epithelial cells and and reassembled into triglycerides
  5. Droplets of fat are discharged into the lacteals by diffusion and are carried to the blood via the lymphatic system
34
Q

Where does lipid digestion take place?

A

In the small intestine, aided by secretions from the liver and pancreas.

35
Q

How does protein digestion take place?

A
  1. Chief cells in the stomach secrete pepsinogen and parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid which activates the pepsinogen into pepsin which hydrolyses large polypeptides into smaller polypeptides
  2. The pancreas secretes the inactivate endopeptidase pepsin into the duodenum with exopeptidase to hydrolyse terminal bonds.
  3. The brush border enzyme dipeptidase hydrolyse dipeptides into amino acids and the brush border enzyme enterokinase activates tripsinogen into the endopeptidase tripsin
  4. Amino acids are taken into the epithelial cells by active transport and pass into capillaries by facilitated diffusion. From the capillaries they are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein
36
Q

Where does protein digestion take place?

A

In the stomach and small intestine with enzymes from the pancreas and brush border enzymes.

37
Q

What is the diet of a herbivore?

A

High cellulose diet. Teeth and gut are adapted for feeding on and digesting tough plant material

38
Q

Describe the structure of a herbivores mouth

A

Incisors on lower jaw for chopping
Horny pad as a surface from incisors to cut against
Molars and premolars for broad grinding surfaces, complementary shapes to lock together
Diastema which is a gap between incisors and premolars which allow the tongue to move food

39
Q

What is the movement of a herbivores jaw?

A

Loose articulation allows forward, backwards and sideward movement.

40
Q

What is the length of a herbivores gut?

A

Long as plant material is hard to digest.

41
Q

What are ruminants?

A

Herbivores with a multi chambered stomach, one of which is the rumen where food is fermented by bacteria. Food is regurgitated and masticated before final digestion eg deer, sheep, goats and cattle.

42
Q

What are non-ruminants?

A

Herbivores which dont have a multi chambered stomach, bacteria are situated in the caecum beyond the small intestine eg rabbits, horses and elephants.

43
Q

What is the advantage to having a ruminant digestion system?

A

They have a symbiotic relationship with bacteria where the bacteria in the rumen get a constant supply of sugars and proteins and the ruminant receives fatty acids and glycerol, the products of cellulose digestion.

44
Q

Describe the passage of food in a ruminant herbivore

A
  1. Rumen- grass is chewed, mixed with saliva, swallowed and passes into the rumen. Bacteria produce cellulose to begin cellulose digestion and cud is formed
  2. Reticulum- the cud passes into the reticulum and is regurgitated into the buccal cavity to be chewed again, further breaking down plant fibres
  3. Omasum- food is filtered and water is absorbed
  4. Abomasum- protein is digested
  5. Small intestine- products of digestion are absorbed
45
Q

What is the disadvantage to having a non-ruminant digestion system?

A

The products of cellulose digestion are not absorbed in the small intestine as the caecum is beyond the small intestine and very few nutrients are absorbed by the caecum.

46
Q

How have rabbits overcome this disadavantage?

A

By eating their own faeces to redigest the nutrients.

47
Q

What is the diet of a carnivore?

A

High protein and fat diet. Teeth adapted to catch and tear apart prey.

48
Q

Describe the structure of a carnivores mouth

A

Incisors which grip and tear flesh from the bone found on both sides of the mouth
Molars and premolars for cutting and crushing food
Canines seize and kill prey and tear up flesh
Carnassials shear flesh, with the upper ones overlapping the lower ones

49
Q

What is the movement of a carnivores jaw?

A

Up and down movement only, opens widely to catch prey.

50
Q

What is the length of a carnivores gut?

A

Short as protein is easily digested, small caecum.

51
Q

What is a parasite?

A

Organisms that live on or in another organism, called a host, obtaining nourishment at the expense of the host.

52
Q

What is an exoparasite?

A

A parasite that lives on the outside of the body eg head louse.

53
Q

What is an endoparasite?

A

A parasite that lives inside the body eg tapeworm.

54
Q

What is the scientific name for a head louse?

A

Pediculus.

55
Q

What is the scientific name for a tape worm?

A

Taenia solium.

56
Q

How are head lice transferred?

A

They cant jump so are transferred from host to host by direct contact.

57
Q

What are some adaptations of head lice?

A

They have claws to hold on to the hair and lay eggs that glue to the base of the hairs.

58
Q

What are the tapeworms primary and secondary host?

A

Primary- humans
Secondary- pigs

59
Q

What hostile conditions does the tapeworm need to overcome?

A

A low pH, peristalsis, enzymes, hosts immune system and the death of its host.

60
Q

How is a tapeworm transferred to humans?

A

Pigs become infected by feeding in drainage channels contaminated with human faeces. Cysts (larval form of tapeworm) develop in the pig flesh with humans then becoming infected by eating the undercooked pork containing live larval forms.

61
Q

What are some adaptations of the tapeworm?

A

Scolex with a double row of hooks and suckers to attach to the body and overcome peristalsis
Thick cuticle to shield from acidic conditions, immune system and digestive enzymes
Haemaphrodite as the gut cannot accommodate two tape worms
Over 40,000 eggs produced per segment to increase chances of infecting secondary host

Biology 🧫 (11 decks)

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