Addiction Flashcards

Question

Learning theory expl. to smoking: forming the addiction

Answer 1

expl: smoking is a learnt behaviour through operant conditioning -Smoking behaviour by positive reinforcement -The individual is rewarded with the feeling of euphoria when they inhale nicotine -due to its impact on the dopamine system in the brain’s reward pathway -Therefore the person will smoke again to get the same reward of euphoria

Answer 2

-Negative reinforcement can explain why an individual would continue to smoke -Cessation of nicotine (stopping smoking) leads to the appearance of withdrawal syndrome which has unpleasant symptoms such as disturbed sleep, agitation and poor concentration -These symptoms make it difficult for a smoker to abstain for long -therefore an individual would continue to smoke to avoid the unpleasant symptoms (negative reinforcement)

Answer 3

-The pleasurable effect of smoking (nicotine) is known as the primary reinforcer -because of it’s rewarding effect on the dopamine reward system (euphoria), this is not learnt -Any other stimuli that are repeatedly present at the same time as the nicotine, or just before, (such as a lighter, certain friends, places), over time, become associated with this pleasurable feeling -These stimuli are called the secondary reinforcers, because they have taken on the properties of the primary reinforcer (nicotine), and become rewarding in their own right -These secondary reinforcers (certain friends, places and smells) also act as cues -because their presence produces a similar psychological (craving) and physiological (increased heart rate) reaction to the nicotine itself – this is cue reactivity -These reactions makes a person want to smoke again (seek primary reinforcement) -This can explain why individuals sometimes relapse and/or maintain their addiction to nicotine

Answer 4

-RTS by Carter and Tiffany -They conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies into cue reactivity -They presented dependent, non-dependent smokers and non-smokers with smoking related cues (e.g. lighters, ashtrays and cigarette packets) -Self reported desire (cravings) was measured alongside heart rate (arousal) -They found that dependent smokers reacted most strongly to the cues for example increased heart rate and reported cravings to smoke -This supports cue reactivity as an explanation for smoking behaviour because the dependent smokers had learned secondary associations between smoking related stimuli and the pleasurable effects of smoking

Answer 5

-environmental determinism -this is because is it states that an individual is controlled by reinforcements and associations that cause behaviour -e.g. if a person is rewarded for smoking by the feeling of euphoria, they will inevitably smoke again to get the same reward -This neglects the role of free will and choice and individual has -e.g. a person may choose not to continue smoking despite the pleasurable reward, for health reasons -The learning theory cannot account for this and therefore may not be a full explanation of smoking behaviour

Answer 6

-practical applications -This is because the principles of the theory, that addiction is caused by pleasant associations (cue reactivity) has led to -behavioural interventions such as aversion therapy and covert sensitisation -This is effective in treating nicotine addiction by encouraging a patient to re-associate nicotine with negative feelings for example, nausea, rather than a feeling of pleasure -Therefore, the learning theory of smoking behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps treat nicotine addiction in the real world

Answer 7

-A gambling addiction can form due to the experience of observing a role model being rewarded for their gambling behaviour (vicarious reinforcement) -The reward could be their enjoyment in gambling or the occasional wins and financial returns they gain -This observation doesn’t have to be direct it can be through newspapers, magazine or the media -e.g. hearing about someone winning big on the lottery could make a person more likely to gamble to gain the same reward

Answer 8

Operant conditioning: Gambling can provide two kinds of positive reinforcements: the reward of winning money ‘buzz’ excitement from gambling Therefore, the gambling behaviour is likely to be repeated to gain the same reward Gambling can also be seen as a distraction for some from anxieties of everyday life Gambling can act as negative reinforcement to distract the individual from their unpleasant feelings and anxiety Therefore, they will continue to engage in gambling behaviour to avoid the negative consequence of anxiety

Answer 9

where a behaviour is reinforced only some of the time if a person is rewarded every time, become bored partial reinforcement enables a person to develop an addiction due to reinforcements being limited making gambling more exciting as an individual is unsure when they will next win so behaviour does not extinguish; even when the win stops

Answer 10

fixed rate variable reinforcement

Answer 11

behaviour is reinforced a predictable amount of times e.g. a slot machine paying out every tenth time This does NOT form an addiction

Answer 12

behaviour is reinforced an unpredictable amount of times (at variable intervals) e.g. you win at blackjack on the 15th time, then on the 2nd time This highly more reinforcing (rewarding) as it is highly unpredictable/exciting therefore leads to stronger, more persistent gambling behaviour

Answer 13

-RTS from Parke and Griffiths (2004) -Their research supports the idea that gambling is reinforced due to the money, thrill and excitement -but they said that the fact there is a sensation of a ‘near miss’ as well makes it reinforced even if there is a loss -This supports the idea of partial and variable reinforcement making gambling highly addictive -due to the unpredictability of winning and the associated excitement

Answer 14

-practical applications -This is because the principles of the theory that addiction is caused by pleasant associations between gambling and excitement -has led to behavioural interventions such as aversion therapy -This is where gambling is re-associated with a negative stimulus -i.e. electric shocks, rather than a feeling of pleasure and excitement -Therefore it is an important part of applied psychology as it helps treat gambling addictions in the real world

Answer 15

-environmental determinism -This is because is it states that an individual is controlled by reinforcements that cause behaviour -e.g if person is rewarded for gambling by the feeling of euphoria, or the occasional win, they will gamble again to get the same reward -This neglects the role of free will and choice and individual has -e.g. a person may choose not to continue gambling, despite the ‘buzz’ due to being aware of the potential financial losses -The learning theory cannot account for this and therefore may not be a full explanation of gambling behaviour

Answer 16

a result of cognitive distortions and/or faulty thought processes

Answer 17

Cognitive bias is where a person’s thinking, memory and attentional processes are faulty leading an individual to make irrational judgements and poor decisions These biases influence how gamblers think about their behaviour what they pay attention to, and what they remember and what they forget

Answer 18

Faulty beliefs of skills and judgement engaging in personal traits/ritual behaviours selective recall faulty perceptions

Answer 19

Gambling addicts have an illusion of control which means they overestimate their ability to influence a random event

Answer 20

Addicted gamblers believe they have a greater probability of winning over other people because they are lucky or have engaged in superstitious behaviour

Answer 21

Addicted gamblers remember certain types of information/memories/events better than others

Answer 22

Addicted gamblers have distorted views about the operation of chance (gambler's fallacy)

Answer 23

-an individual’s perceived ability to control their own behaviour, -which can explain why some people relapse into gambling again after abstaining -Addicts with low self-efficacy believe they cannot give up gambling and it will always be a ‘part of them = In turn, this leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy in which the individual continues to gamble because their belief is they cannot stop themselves -This causes their gambling addiction to be reinforced due to the gamblers belief that they lack control over this aspect of their life

Answer 24

-RTS by Griffiths -who carried out a natural experiment on a sample of 30 regular gamblers comparing them to a control group of 30 occasional gamblers -They played on a fruit machine and were asked to ‘think aloud’ and verbalise their thought processes whilst playing and were interviewed afterwards -They found that regular gamblers saw themselves as ‘skilful’ at the fruit machine, made more irrational statements compared to occasional gamblers and were more likely to explain losses as ‘near wins’ -This supports the cognitive explanation of gambling because it demonstrates the faulty thought processes and control that gamblers believe they have over a random event

Answer 25

-the use of ‘thinking aloud’ research has been questioned -This self report method is used in a lot of studies in to the cognitive explanation of gambling -Some psychologists believe that what people say in gambling situations does not necessarily represent what they really think -‘Off the cuff’ remarks made whilst gambling may not reflect an addicts deeply-held beliefs about chance and skill -Therefore researchers may get misleading impression that gamblers’ thought processes are irrational when in fact they are not -Limiting the validity of the research used to support the cognitive explanation of gambling

Answer 26

-practical applications -This is because the principles of the theory, that addiction is caused by cognitive biases and faulty thought processes -has led to the development of cognitive behaviour therapy -This is effective in treating behaviour by identifying and challenging the irrational and faulty thought processes that have lead an individual to gamble -such as faulty belief of skills as gamblers have an illusion of control over the random event in gambling -changing them into rational and logical thought processes via disputing -Therefore, the cognitive explanation is an important part of applied psychology as it helps people overcome their gambling addiction in the real world

Answer 27

Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) - (agonist substitution) Aim: Provide nicotine from a less harmful source e.g. patches, gum, nasal spray, rather than a cigarette How it works: NRT stimulates the nicotine receptors and activates the brain’s reward pathway releasing dopamine into the limbic system stimulating the nucleus accumbens creating the same pleasurable feeling as smoking a cigarette does This can lead to a reduction in the nicotine withdrawal symptoms and stops the cravings The reduction in the withdrawal symptoms is an example of negative reinforcement as the NRT removes the unpleasant circumstances of quitting smoking NRT also desensitises the nicotine receptors in the brain by releasing small amounts of nicotine so that only some receptors are full with nicotine, but not all Therefore, over time the number of nicotine receptors reduce meaning that cigarettes become less rewarding to smoke therefore relapse is less likely to occur The addict can gradually reduce the dosage of nicotine as their tolerance to nicotine is reduced

Answer 28

No specific drug treatment for gambling has been approved in the UK There is ongoing research into several candidates, the most promising being an opioid antagonist such as naltrexone, which is conventionally used to treat heroin addiction This has come about because of the similarities between gambling addictions and substance addictions Opioid Antagonist Aim: Reduce the pleasurable feeling associated with gambling How it works: Opioid Antagonists (Naltrexone) enhance the the release of the neurotransmitter GABA in the mesolimbic pathway The increased GABA activity reduces the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (and ultimately prefrontal cortex) Some research has linked this with reductions in gambling behaviour

Answer 29

-RTS by Stead et al -for effectiveness of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) -They reviewed 150 high-quality research studies that compared the use of NRT with a placebo They found that all forms of NRT (gum, inhalers, patches) were significantly more effective in helping smokers quit than placebos and no treatment at all Therefore, supporting drug therapy as a way of reducing addiction, as it has been found to be very effective

Answer 30

-negative side effects -Common side effects of these drugs include sleep disturbance, stomach problems, dizziness and headaches -unlike CBT which is non-invasive -as the individual is identifying and challenging irrational thoughts that have lead to their addiction -These side effects of drug therapy may cause an individual to stop treatment resulting in a relapse of symptoms therefore, drug therapy would be ineffective at reducing an individual’s addiction

Answer 31

-requires little motivation from the patient -This is because the patient just has to wear a patch or chew gum in order to reduce their addiction -unlike CBT which requires more effort and motivation from the patient as they will have to commit to CBT sessions over months -have to complete homework outside of these, so they must be very motivated to quit -Therefore, drug therapy may be seen as a more appropriate treatment for reducing addiction than others such as CBT

Answer 32

aversion therapy covert sensitisation Both work on the principles of classical conditioning and aim to replace the pleasurable association with the addictive substance/behaviour with an unpleasant association Counterconditioning

Answer 33

-The idea of the therapy is to use the principles of classical conditioning in order to change the pleasurable association with the addictive substance/behaviour -replace it with an unpleasant association in a vivo experience

Answer 34

Rapid Smoking Individuals will sit alone in a room taking a puff of a cigarette every 6 seconds They will begin to feel nauseous and sick and start to associate this feeling to smoking (principles of CC) This is repeated until the individual develops an aversion to smoking, thus reducing their addiction

Answer 35

-Electric shocks have been used for gambling -The shocks used do not cause permanent damage, but they are meant to avert people from gambling -therefore do cause pain (they are pre-selected by participants at the start of treatment) -The addicted gambler thinks of phrases that relate to his or her gambling behaviour and write them down on cards -e.g. ‘lottery’, ‘casino’ -Some non-gambling behaviours are also included -e.g. ‘went straight home’ -The ppt is asked to read out each card and when they get to a gambling related phrase they are given a two second electric shock -The ppt should then associate (classical conditioning) gambling with the painful shock -rather than pleasure and develop an aversion to gambling -reducing their addiction

Answer 36

-A client is given an aversive drug such as disulfiram (Antabuse) -This interferes with the bodily process of metabolising alcohol into harmless chemicals -This means a person who drinks alcohol whilst taking disulfiram will experience severe nausea and vomiting -The aim of this is for the individual to associate the alcohol with the nausea -develop an aversion to drinking alcohol as it would cause a conditioned response of nausea, reducing their addiction

Answer 37

Aim: -the pleasurable association with the addictive substance behaviour has to be broken down - replaced with an unpleasant association in a vitro experience How it works for nicotine addiction: -Client is encouraged to relax -Therapist then reads from a script asking the client to imagine an aversive situation -e.g. the client may imagine himself or herself smoking a cigarette followed by the most unpleasant consequences -e.g. the experience of vomiting, or imagine themselves smoking a cigarette covered in faeces -The more vivid the imaginary scene is the better the treatment works -Therefore, the therapist will go into graphic detail about certain elements of the scene (smells, sounds, physical movements) -Towards the end of the session, the client imagines turning their back on the addiction and experience the resulting feelings of relief -The participant should then associate the addiction with the unpleasant scenario, rather than pleasure, reducing their addiction

Answer 38

-RTS by McConaghy et al looked at reducing gambling addiction -They compared electric shock aversion therapy with covert sensitisation in treating gambling addiction -It was found that in a one year follow up; those who had received covert sensitisation were significantly more likely to have reduced their gambling activities -(90% covert sensitisation compared to 30% aversion therapy) -Therefore, suggesting covert sensitisation is more effective behavioural intervention for treating gambling addiction compared to aversion therapy

Answer 39

-ethical issues of aversion therapy is as a method of reducing addiction -It is thought that aversion therapy such as rapid smoking, electric shock therapy and Antabuse -could cause physical and/or psychological harm such as making the person physically sick or giving them electric shocks -For this reason, covert sensitisation may be more appropriate as the therapy is carried out in a vitro (imaginary) experience -potentially reducing any physical or psychological harm -suggesting covert sensitisation may be more appropriate than aversion therapy at reducing addiction

Answer 40

-covert sensitisation is a non-invasive treatment -e.g. if an individual is pregnant, covert sensitisation is unlikely to harm the foetus -unlike aversion therapy as stress and pain or vomiting from the mother during pregnancy can lead to negative physical and emotional effects on the baby -Therefore, covert sesitisation may be seen as a more appropriate way of reducing addiction compared to aversion therapy

Answer 41

To identify and challenge cognitive distortions that are causing an addiction as a way of coping replace with more adaptive ways of thinking via cognitive restructuring

Answer 42

functional analysis cognitive restructuring social skills homework

Answer 43

A therapist will ask the client to identify the high-risk situations/triggers to their addiction e.g. walking past a betting shop ask them to report what they are thinking before, during and after the addiction The relationship between the client-therapist is critical: it should be warm and responsive, but not cosy This is because the therapist must challenge the client’s biased cognitions and not merely accept them

Answer 44

used to change irrational/maladaptive thoughts to rational/adaptive ones e.g. if a person had an addiction to gambling, they may have irrational beliefs that they win more than they lose (selective recall) this could be challenged via empirical disputing e.g. the therapist could ask ‘where is the evidence that you win more than you lose?

Answer 45

-addicted person will be taught social skills -e.g. an individual will learn how to refuse the addictive behaviour (gambling) or substance without embarrassment and fuss in social situations -This is done by the therapist teaching the patient how to act within a social situation -e.g. making eye contact and being firm in the refusal to gamble, in a safe and secure environment (role play) -Moreover, the client would be taught avoidance strategies, where the client would learn to avoid situations that are likely to produce addictive behaviours (high risk situations identified in functional analysis) -e.g. driving a different way home to avoid driving past a betting shop

Answer 46

The patient practices these social skills within the real world on their own reports back to their therapist until they feel confident within social situations where their addictive behaviour/substance is available This leads to relapse prevention

Answer 47

-RTS by Perty et al -for the effectiveness of CBT in reducing gambling addiction -They randomly allocated gamblers to a control group who received Gamblers Anonymous (GA) meetings or a treatment condition who received GA meetings and an eight-session CBT programme -It was found that the patients in the treatment condition were gambling significantly less than the control group of patients -Therefore, demonstrating the effectiveness of CBT in reducing addictions such as gambling

Answer 48

-require motivation from the patient -This is because the patient has to commit to a number of CBT sessions over months -they would have to challenge their irrational thoughts that are causing their addiction -would also be set homework to complete outside of the sessions such as avoidance strategies -This is unlike drug therapy where a patient just has to take a tablet or wear a nicotine patch/have nicotine gum to reduce their addiction -Therefore, CBT may be seen as a less appropriate treatment for reducing addiction than others such as drug therapy as patients may drop out of treatment and therefore relapse

Answer 49

-suitable for all individuals as it is a non-invasive treatment -e.g. if an individual is pregnant, CBT is unlikely to harm the foetus -unlike drug therapy as chemicals within the drug such as nicotine in NRT may cause physical damage to the baby -Therefore, cognitive behaviour therapy may be a more appropriate treatment for depression as it is not limiting to who can partake in sessions

Answer 50

describes how a set of 3 interacting beliefs can influence a person’s intention to change and therefore whether the therapy will be effective or not

Answer 51

attitudes subjective norms control

Answer 52

If any individual has more negative attitudes towards their addiction than positive then they are less likely to intend to do to the addictive behaviour e.g. gamble less likely to actually gamble therefore more likely to change their addictive behaviour

Answer 53

if an addicted person believes that the people who matter most to them disapprove of the addictive behaviour then this would make them less likely to intend to engage in the addictive behaviour therefore less likely to actually gamble/smoke more likely to change their addictive behaviour

Answer 54

how much control (self efficacy) a person feels they have over their own behaviour and ability to change influences their intention This is based on: *Internal factors e.g. how determined they are *External factors e.g. support and time *Past experience e.g. if they have successfully given up before

Answer 55

-RTS by Haggar et al -They asked 486 ppts to complete questionnaires about their alcohol-related behaviours -at the start of the research then one and three months later They found that personal attitudes and subjective norms correlated significantly with the intention to limit drinking to match guidelines -Perceived control predicted actual unit consumption -increasing its validity in explaining behaviour change in addiction -This supports the TPB as the three components interact to affect an individual’s intention to stop

Answer 56

-on questionnaires -are prone to social desirability -Individual’s may lie about their intentions towards their addiction in order to present themselves in the best possible light -e.g. they may say they intend to drink within guidelines to avoid being judged -Therefore, this reduces the validity of the research supporting TPB of behaviour change

Answer 57

-TPB assumes addiction is the result of rational decisions -In research ppts are asked about their intentions and attitudes towards the addictive behaviour -At this point they may be thinking more rationally -however, in the moment when faced with their addiction and deciding about whether to do the addictive behaviour or not -emotions, stress (e.g. triggers for cravings) and cognitive biases may make them make irrational choices -which TPB does not account for -TPB is based on rational thoughts which may ultimately not be reflected in actual behaviour

Answer 58

-The model explains the process involved in behavioural change -that can be used to explain how individuals overcome an addiction -This model has a cyclical nature -and takes a positive and dynamic approach, to changing addictive behaviour as opposed to an all or nothing approach -The model recognises that people differ in how ready they are to give up their addiction and how useful a treatment intervention will be depends on which stage the individual is at

Answer 59

Precontemplation Contemplation Preparation Action Maintenance Termination

Answer 60

Individual does not consider themselves as having a problem isn’t thinking about changing their behavior even though they know it is not healthy This could be due to denial or demotivation Intervention= Focuses on helping the addict to consider the need for change e.g. ‘Ignorance is bliss’

Answer 61

Individual is now thinking about changing their behavior have an awareness that they need to take action They are aware of the costs (e.g. less enjoyment) and benefits (e.g. health) to changing Intervention= Drug treatment at this stage would not be helpful.Ways of helping the individual understand the pros of overcoming the addiction outweighs the costs e.g. ‘I will change tomorrow’

Answer 62

This stage where the person believes the benefits of changing behaviour are outweighing the costs They decide to change within the next month but maybe not exactly sure what they will do to change intervention= support in constructing a plan e.g. making a GP appointment, calling a helpline or presenting with options e.g. ‘Ok I’m ready for this’

Answer 63

plan is put into action Usually at this stage, the individual has done something to change their behavior in the last six months e.g. behavioural or cognitive therapies or pour away alcohol and is continuing with their behavior change intervention= Developing coping strategies the individual will need to quit and maintain their change of behavior e.g. I have stopped

Answer 64

The individual has maintained some change of behaviour for more than six months The focus is on relapse prevention such as avoiding situations where cues might trigger the addiction This stage can be lengthy and the individual needs to keep focused on the long-term goal of termination intervention= Applying the coping strategies they have learned and use the sources of support available to them to prevent relapse e.g. ‘Stay on track’

Answer 65

Newly acquired behaviours such as abstinence become automatic The individual no longer turns to addictive behaviours to cope with stress/anxiety They are confident in their ability to resist the behavior intervention= none required e.g. ‘I will never do it again’

Answer 66

-Prochaska's six-stage model of behaviour change has been criticised as some argue that the stages of change are not well differentiated -Pa Kraft et al (1999) argue that the six-stages can be reduced to just two useful stages -pre-contemplation plus the others grouped together -as the person is thinking about change in all of these later stages but not in the first -This has important implications as each stage in Prochaska's model is matched with a specific intervention -Therefore, this could limit Prochaska's usefulness as a model of behaviour change and for treatment recommendations

Answer 67

-takes a positive view of of relapse -The six stage model does not view relapse as a failure -but as an inevitable part of the dynamic, un-linear process of behaviour change -Although, relapse is more than a 'slip' the model takes it seriously and does not underestimate its potential to knock an addict off the course of recovery -This means the six stage model of behaviour change is more acceptable as a result of its positive outlook on relapse

Answer 68

-research is based on self-report methods (questionnaire and interviews) -which could lead to social desirability -Prochaska based this model on nicotine addicts and the changes in their thinking when giving up -they could have lied about how logical their thought processes were when giving up to present themselves in the best possible light Therefore, this reduces the internal validity of the research into Prochaska's six-stage model of behavior change

Addiction Flashcards

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