Additional Methods, Features of Science & Scientific Reports Flashcards
What is content analysis?
a technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories - converting qualitative data into quantitative data, involved the indirect study of people via communications e.g. text messages
What are coding units?
categorising data into useful/meaningful units as some data sets can be extremely large, can involve words, themes, characters, roles, time, space
What are the strengths of using content analysis?
- allows researchers to circumvent many of the ethical issues that would have been encountered in other research methods as much of the content is already in the public domain - no problems with consent
- research often high in external validity as there is nothing artificial about the data
What are the limitations of using content analysis?
- the possibility of bias as the interpretation is subjective, and data may be analysed out of the context in which it was produced
- cultural bias may be a problem as interpretation of meaning of different verbal or written content. may be affected by the language/culture of the observer, and the coding units they have chosen to use
- choice of material and content to be analysed includes potential for bias
How do we deal with the issue of subjectivity in content analysis?
to have a number of researchers who work independently, and compare their results (a form of inter-rater reliability) - to increase reliability, researchers should be trained before hand in how to use the coding units
What is thematic analysis?
a method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and recording patterns within the data - purpose is to identify patterns of meaning or repeated themes across a dataset that provide an answer to the research that is being addressed, themes are identified through a rigorous process of familiarisation, data coding and theme development and revision
What are the 6 stages to approaching thematic analysis?
- familiarisation with the data
- coding
- searching for themes
- reviewing themes - check candidate themes against the dataset, to determine if they tell a convincing story of the data
- defining and naming themes
- writing up
What are the strengths of using thematic analysis?
- richness in detail from this form of analysis, retains the descriptive nature of the material
- it is flexible and can be used to answer different types of research question
What are the limitations of using thematic analysis?
- risk of subjectivity, hence, researcher bias
- very lengthy
What are case studies?
an in-depth investigation of an individual, group or event, where data is gathered from a range of sources using different methods (e.g. observations & interviews) longitudinal and may involve talking to family/friends
What are the strengths of using case studies?
- give a detailed picture of an individual that helps to uncover what type of person they are related to present and past behaviour
- by studying unusual cases we learn more about normally functioning people
- they provide a variety of in-depth and detailed information that may not be possible to gather from experiments
- often provide the only method for studying a particular condition/event e.g HM
What are the limitations of using case studies?
- may rely on memory which may be inaccurate/distorted (retrospective studies), also past records may be incomplete
- can only tell you about one person/group so findings can not be generalised
- interviewer may be biased or interviewee may not be honest
- objectivity from researchers can be difficult and data may be very subjective
- issue of confidentiality
What are the goals of a science?
- prediction
- understanding
- control
What is objectivity?
idea it doesn’t matter who makes a measurement/observation, they will record the same thing
How do we reduce the possibility of unconscious bias?
- standardised instructions
- operational definitions of variables
- techniques e.g. double-blind
Why is there a lack of objectivity?
- experimenter bias
- subject matter means it is not possible
Where is there evidence of objectivity?
- brain scans
- experiments e.g. Skinner’s pigeons, behaviours such as pecking a disk objectively measured
What is the empirical method?
the belief that only the source of true knowledge is through our senses and in some psychological cases, in some studies, cannot always be directly observed
- consists of observation and measurement
What is evidence against objectivity?
- reliant on self-report methods and qualitative data (require interpretation) e.g. Bowlby’s 44 Thieves
What is a problem with the empirical method?
- thoughts and feelings are not directly observable - physics also have issues like this and use inference - in psychology, can infer through influences on the behaviour of people
What us replicability?
the extent to which a piece of research can be repeated under the same conditions as the original research
Where is there evidence of replicability?
Asch’s study repeated by many with similar results e.g. Crutchfield
What is a problem with replicability?
natural experiments cannot be repeated and checked for reliability e.g. Romanian Orphan Studies due to ethical issues or purely the nature if the study
What is falsifiability?
Popper’s principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue
