Adolescence and Early Adulthood

Question 1

what are the stages of adolescence?

Answer 1

o Early 11-14.
o Middle 14-17.
o Late 18-21.

Question 2

when do girls start growing taller?

Answer 2

early in puberty

Question 3

when do boys start growing taller?

Answer 3

late in puberty

Question 4

what is the gender difference in puberty?

Answer 4

girls grow taller, start puberty and are more mature, earlier than boys do.

Question 5

when do the sexes start puberty?

Answer 5

girls start puberty around 8 (with breast budding)

whilst boys start around 10.5.

Question 6

when is peak puberty for boys and girls?

Answer 6

peak for girls is 11-13.5

peak for boys is 13-15.

Question 7

what are early maturing girls and late maturing boys at risk of?

Answer 7

depression, substance abuse, ASBOs, eating disorders and bullying.

Question 8

what happens to grey matter as you reach adolescence? what happens to white matter? what other cortical changes occur?

Answer 8

• grey matter decreases in the brain
  pre-frontal cortex increases in density of grey matter until puberty, then decrease.
• cortical white matter increases
• Synaptogenesis followed by pruning (synapse elimination) occurs so unneeded connections are removed so to learn more complex things

Question 9

when do certain lobes develop to their peak?

Answer 9

• ~12yrs: Frontal and parietal lobes develop peak.

* ~16yrs:Temporal lobes develop peak.

Question 10

which area of the brain is last to develop?

Answer 10

Dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex

association areas in general develop last while regions associated with basic functions like sensory and motor processing develop first

Question 11

what are the Piaget’s stages of development?

Answer 11

• Birth to 2: Sensorimotor stage.
• 2 to7: Preoperational stage
  – symbolic thinking.
• 7 to 11: Concrete operational stage
  – reason logically.
• 11 to 15: Formal operational stage
  – abstract, idealistic, logical and hypothetical reasoning.

Question 12

how does morality develop throughout time?

Answer 12

Kohlberg's Theory
- Level 1 + 2: Pre-conventional 
– desire to avoid punishment.
- Level 3 +4: Conventional 
– to illicit validation from others.
- Level 5 +6: Post-conventional
 – internal moral code and independent of others.

Question 13

what is Harter’s 8-dimension model of self-concept?

Answer 13

Scholastic, job, athletic, physical appearance, social acceptance, close friends, romantic appeal and conduct of self

Question 14

what is the clinical implication of low self-esteem on adolescents?

Answer 14

can lead to depression, anxiety, poor academia, social isolation but can also happen to normal esteem

Question 15

how does ethnic identity develop in cultural minorities?

Answer 15

1) Integration
– retain base culture, develop and maintain with mainstream culture as well.
2) Assimilation
– lose base culture, develop and maintain into mainstream culture.
3) Separation
– retain base culture, no development into mainstream culture.
4) Marginalisation
– lose base culture, no development into mainstream culture.

Question 16

what is the role of family in development?

Answer 16

Conflict with parents
– most adolescents have good relationships, high confiding in mothers.

Family connectedness is associated with
– reduced risk behaviours and increased self-esteem

Question 17

how does peer development change throughout adolescence?

Answer 17

1) Primary school (7-11)
– goal to be accepted by peers, prefer same gender and gain loyalty.

2) 11-13
– expect genuineness, intimacy, common interests, emergence of cliques.

3) 13-16
– friendship goals, cross-gender relationships and develop larger groups.

4) 16-18
– emotional support expected and increase dyadic romantic ties.

Question 18

how do boys and girls differ in relationships with others?

Answer 18

Boys
– less intimate, disclosing and friendships embedded in larger circles.

Girls
– close and confiding relationships but are more brittle.

Question 19

what influences may peers and parents have on a developing teen?

Answer 19

Peers influence – interpersonal style, fashion/entertainment.

Parents influence – academic choice, career choice and future aspirations.

Question 20

what two theories describe the onset of puberty?

Answer 20

1) Maturation of the CNS affecting GnRH neurones (increased release)
2) Altered set-point to gonadal steroid negative feedback.

Question 21

what is menarche?

Answer 21

the first occurrence of menstruation

Question 22

why has menarche been pushed to earlier ages in the last 150 years?

Answer 22

possibly due to better nutrition available

but body weight has remained constant over those years

Question 23

what is adrenarche?

Answer 23

early sexual maturation stage (10 or 11):
–> DHEA, DHEAS is made by the adrenals
rather than gonadly using the HPA axis rather than PPG axis.

Hair growth results
increase in adrenal androgen production

Question 24

what does Kisspeptin do? what can stimulate kisspeptin?

Answer 24

stimulates GnRH and the GnRHr.

Increased leptin can stimulate Kisspeptin and thus stimulate more GnRH.

hence early puberty

Question 25

what is the effect of childhood obesity on puberty?

Answer 25

early puberty

Question 26

what is pruning? what is the significance of this?

Answer 26

brain’s way of removing connections in the brain that are no longer needed. Increases risk taking

Question 27

what are the cardinal features of anorexia nervosa?

Answer 27

1) Body weight maintained 15% below expected weight (or BMI < 17.5) - through self induced weight loss 2) Psychopathology – dread of fatness and preoccupation with this. 3) Endocrine abnormalities – amenorrhoea, delayed growth (in younger people) most sufferers are female (90%)

Question 28

what are the causes of anorexia n?

Answer 28

- genetics - perfectionism - some subcultures - abuse and adversity - higher social class.

Question 29

how is anorexia nervosa treated?

Answer 29

- family intervention - cognitive behavioural therapy - (small %) weight restoration may require hospital administration

Question 30

what is bulimia nervosa?

Answer 30

Like anorexia nervosa but involves a preoccupation with eating and then involves purging

Question 31

what are the types of pre-pubertal depression?

Answer 31

(1) common with co-morbid behavioural problems, bad upbringing (bad parents etc.), course of this resembles children with a conduct disorder. No increased risk of recurrence in later life. (2) less common, highly familial, high rates of anxiety and bipolar. Recurrence common

Question 32

what is adolescent depressive disorder?

Answer 32

Irritability instead of sadness (especially in boys), social withdrawal. Outcome with high recurrence and impairment in later adult relationships.

Question 33

what are the symptoms of depression?

Answer 33

(1) Persistent sadness or low mood and/or; (2) Loss of interest or pleasure – anhedonia. (3) Fatigue/low-energy – anergia. must be present for at least 2 weeks with associated symptoms like: (4) Disturbed sleep (5) poor concentration, (6) low self-confidence, (7) changes in appetite and weight (8) suicidal thoughts/acts (9) agitation (10) guilt or self-blame

Question 34

what are the different clusters of depression symptoms?

Answer 34

o Affective – sadness, loss of enjoyment, irritability. o Cognitive – self-blame, hopelessness, guilt. o Biological – disturbed sleep, reduced appetite.

Question 35

what development factors predispose a teen to depression?

Answer 35

o Endocrine – especially in females and may increase risk of low mood. o Relationships with family – get closer with family as you develop leads to more conflict. o Peers – increased involvement with peers as you develop leads to more rejection and conflict. o Responsibilities and hassle.

Question 36

what are the causes of teen depression?

Answer 36

- genetics - family interactions (i.e. criticism) - life events.

Question 37

what is the prognosis like in depression?

Answer 37

- pre-pubertal onset has a better prognosis. | - major depression has a high risk of reoccurrence

Question 38

what are the interventions for tackling depression?

Answer 38

``` o Cognitive behaviour therapy. o Interpersonal psychotherapy. o Family intervention (for associated family problems) o Anti-depressants – SSRIs (for mod to severe depression). ```

Question 39

what is conduct disorder?

Answer 39

persistent (>6 months) failure to control behaviour appropriately within socially defined rules.

Question 40

what are some clinical features of conduct disorder?

Answer 40

- Loses temper and argues - defies adult requests or rules - Bullies, fights or intimidates - Steals and breaks things - Tantrums - Defiance - Defies adult requests or rules - Cruelty to animals - Destructiveness - Fire-setting - Truanting - Runs away

Question 41

what happens during development that predisposes you to conduct disorder?

Answer 41

o Family changes – less direct surveillance and physical closeness. o Peer changes (pressure) – increased involvement with peers may amplify ASBOs. o Experimentation and risk taking – rule violation, drugs and alcohol exposure. common from age 5-15 in deprived city centre areas in males. Associated with larger family sizes and lower socio-economic status

Question 42

how does family influence conduct disorder?

Answer 42

poor parenting, discord, lack of warmth, inconsistent discipline, coercive interactions and aggression.

Question 43

what are the wider influences on conduct disorder?

Answer 43

poor schools and neighbourhoods

Question 44

what outcomes are there for males and females with conduct disorder?

Answer 44

o Males – greater risk of ASBOs in males. | o Females – range of emotional and personality disorders.

Question 45

what are the interventions for conduct disorder?

Answer 45

o Children – problem solving skills. o Treat underlying co-morbidities – depression, hyperactivities. o Parenting programmes. - family intervention

Question 46

what are the other definitions for conduct disorder?

Answer 46

```  Anti-social behaviour – defined by society.  Delinquency/offending – defined by the law.  Conduct disorders – defined by psychiatry. ```

Question 47

what are the types of conduct disorder?

Answer 47

- Unsocialised CD. - Oppositional CD. - Socialised CD (well integrated in peer group) - Depressive CD. - Hyperkinetic CD.

Question 48

what happens to grey matter up to puberty? what happens to it towards early adulthood?

Answer 48

grey matter in the prefrontal cortex increased up to puberty density decreased to earlier adulthood

Question 49

what are some male pubertal changes?

Answer 49

``` growth of scrotum and testes change in voice lengthening of penis growth of pubic hair growth spurt growth of facial and underarm hair change in body shape. ```

Question 50

what are some female pubertal changes?

Answer 50

``` breast budding growth of pubic hair growth spurt first period, growth of underarm hair change in body shape. ```

Question 51

what happens to cortical white matter?

Answer 51

increases from puberty

Question 52

where is DHEA produced? what happens to DHEA?

Answer 52

adrenal glands to a lesser degree in the ovaries and testes is converted to DHEAS in the adrenals and liver

Question 53

what hormones are dependent on DHEA?

Answer 53

oestrogen and testosterone

Question 54

what hormones related to protein synthesis and growth does DHEA have a role in?

Answer 54

IGF-1

Question 55

what are the names of the stages of Piaget's model of cognitive development?

Answer 55

- sensorimotor - preoperational - concrete operational - formal operational

Question 56

what are the domains of social development?

Answer 56

- family development - peer development - friendships - school attainment - parental conflict

Question 57

why does puberty lead to increased body dissatisfaction?

Answer 57

in girls, the increase in adiposity --> anorexia nervosa