African Americans

Question 1

stats

Answer 1

By the 1970s, 35-45% of black families were classified as middle class and many stats suggested that AA was making great gains

Question 2

gains made by AA

Answer 2

Increase in African Americans in congress (1959-4 by 1980- 18)
Increase in cities with black mayors (LA, Detroit, Birmingham and Atlanta)
Increase in wages. In 1970 31% of black families were earning over $10,000 per year (Middle Class) 1947 - 3%, 1960 - 13%

Question 3

continuing problems in the 1970s

Answer 3

Black male teenage unemployment averaged at 50%
The continuing white flight made ghetto communities even more rundown
Half of all black teenagers in NYC dropped out of high school before graduation
Compared to a white child, a black child was twice as likely to die before reaching the age of one, twice as likely to drop out of school and four times as likely to be murdered - police brutality

Question 4

segregation

Answer 4

In 1969, the SC ruled that separate but equal schools were ‘no longer constitutionally permissible’. By 1974, the % of segregated schools in the South was down from 68% to 8%. However, defacto segregation continued in the North where it was a divisive issue. This was demonstrated by events in Boston

Question 5

key CR moments

Answer 5

Boston
Affirmative Action

Question 6

desegregation - the case in boston

Answer 6

De facto segregation still taking place in Boston schools- separate and unequal facilities. NAACP initiated a federal district court case and won- busing was ordered to take place. In 1974, the federal district court found Boston guilty of unconstitutional segregation of schools which led to busing.
Anti-busing groups appeared- Restore our Alienated Rights (ROAR). South Boston High- parents surrounded school. Nine black children hurt. Ford opposed busing but supported decisions and had troops ready when violence erupted in 1974 when a white student was stabbed

Question 7

carter and affirmative action

Answer 7

Carter aimed to help minorities and women in education and employment. He appointed more black federal judges than any of president - 38
Supported 1977 public works act- which said that minority contractors should get 10% of federal grants for public works . Bakke vs University of California- upheld affirmative action but not quotas

Question 8

what did affirmative action prove to be

Answer 8

Socially divisive

Question 9

case against Affirmative Action

Answer 9

Bakke v Regents of the University of California 1978

Question 10

African American Dissatisfaction

Answer 10

african americans disliked Bakke and complained that Carter was insufficiently committed to -
busing Many AA unhappy with Bakke ruling
Argued that Carter did not do enough to support AA i.e Humphrey- Hawkins Bill to increase employment opportunities was watered down
Economic crisis in 1970s disproportionately affected AA people
1980 riots after all white jury acquitted 4 white policemen of beating to death a black insurance salesman in Florida
Led to 16 deaths and 400 people injured

Question 11

what greatly improved the Social Status of AA in the south

Answer 11

The 1964 CRA which ended the social inferiority enshrined in the Jim Crow laws. That act had mandated the acceleration of school desegregation and coupled with Supreme Court rulings had helped to increase the number of AA who graduated from high school and obtained degrees. AA were slowly closing the educational gap on whites

Question 12

how were AA still far behind

Answer 12

in 1970, 31% of AA and 55% of whites aged over 25 completed four or more years of high school. By 1980, 51% of AA and 69% of whites had done so
In 1970, 4% of AA and 11% of whites completed four or more years of college. By 1980, 8% of AA and 17% of whites had some so

Question 13

how much did Nixon reduce segregation reduce by

Answer 13

The % of AA children in segregated schools in the South fell from 68% to 8% during Nixon’s presidency

Question 14

what remained a problem

Answer 14

Defacto segregation in the North proved harder to combat

Question 15

defacto segregation in the North

Answer 15

Although the SC had ruled it time for the full implementation of school desegregation in Swamm v Charlotte - Mecklenburg 1971 and had specified the busing of black and white children to each other’s schools as a way to achieve racial equality, the courts and Congress grew more conservative on busing. In Milliken v Bradley 1974, the SC ruled that white suburbs had no constitutional obligation to merge with black cities in order to facilitate school integration. In 1974 and 75, congress approved anti-busing legislation.

Question 16

escalation of desegregation in the North

Answer 16

White backlash generated by busing made an important contribution to the revival of social conservatism. In 1971, the KKK bombed and destroyed ten school buses in Michigan. Opposition to busing caused private school numbers to rise across America. Boston’s public schools contained 45,000 whites in 74, but only 16k in 1987 - also led to white flight. Clearly, as Ike had said, racial tolerance could not be legislated into existence

Question 17

what did the government do to help the economic status of African Americans

Answer 17

The 1964-5 legislation made the federal government focus on affirmative action and anti-discrimination measures in higher education and employment in an attempt to improve the economic status of AA

Question 18

how did Affirmative Action help the economic positions of AA

Answer 18

Affirmative Action especially set-asides that guaranteed a certain percentage of contracts to minority owned businesses and EEOC pressure to decrease discrimination in hiring, accelerated the growth of the black middle class across the nation. Affirmative Action in unis increased the educational opportunities available to AA. By 1980, around one-third of AA were middle class

Question 19

ways in which affirmative action did not help the economic position of AA

Answer 19

It led to a white backlash, esp against affirmative actions in Unis. For example, a federal judges 1975 ruling against the Detroit police department last hired, first fired principle which protected recently employed black officers caused a police riot in which several white police officers attacked one AA officer

Question 20

how was the civil rights acts limited

Answer 20

It did not solve all black economic problems. Although the median household income of whites increased slightly during the decade, that of black americans did not. By 1980, median black household income was only 60% of that of whites, a similar figure to 1965. The proportion of AA in poverty remained at 33%, three times that of whites. One-third of black Americans had low-skilled jobs in low-wage occupations and average black earnings was half those of whites.

Question 21

health

Answer 21

As a consequence of poverty, the black IMR remained twice that of whites. Even though Medicaid lowered the black IMR and raised life expectancy. While black life expectancy in 1980 was 68.1, whites was 74.4 and there had been little closing of the gap since 1970.

Question 22

crime stats

Answer 22

A further consequence of inferior socio-economic status lay in the crime stats. AA constituted 12% of the US population but 69% arraigned for robbery. Ghetto crime, poverty and unemployment remained insoluble problems that even black mayors could not solve.

Question 23

AA and the American Dream

Answer 23

By 1980, many AAs were disheartened by the opposition to desegregation and affirmative action and disillusioned with the American Dream

Question 24

what helped the political status of African Americans

Answer 24

The Voting rights act as it helped ensure that AA in the south could vote

Question 25

how did the voting rights act help the political status of AA

Answer 25

led to an increase in black mayors

Question 26

who was the mayor of Atlanta

Answer 26

Maynard Jackson

Question 27

what racist town elected a black mayor

Answer 27

Birmingham - in 1979

Question 28

how many AA were in congress

Answer 28

Over 20 AA sat in the House of Reps from 1973-80, but they represented districts with a predominately black population because it was difficult for a black candidate to obtain state-wide votes. The sole african american in the Senate in this period was Edward William Brooke III, who represented Massachusetts from 1967 to 1979. Nationally only 1% of elected officials were black in 1980

Question 29

the Supreme Court and the political status of AA

Answer 29

The SC worked to promote equal political status across the nation by ruling that no gerrymandering should leave ethnic minorities worse off in terms on political representation in Beer v United States 1976. Some states went further and created districts in which black American voters were grouped together to ensure the election of black officials.

Question 30

how did the SC reduce the political status of AA

Answer 30

The SC weakened the VRA when it ruled that discriminatory effect had to be accompanied by discriminatory intent in City of Mobile v Bolden 1980. This made it harder to challenge discriminatory voting laws and AA political inequality continued

Question 31

The New South

Answer 31

Greater racial tolerance and economic growth= The New South (The south was ‘transformed’). The CRActs changed the South. Southern governors no longer used the racist rhetoric of previous decades
1974 George Wallace became a Born again Christian and apologised for his segregational past

Question 32

Migration back to the South Why?

Answer 32

Civil Rights and Voting Rights Act
Less active unions in the South- businesses started to develop here
De facto segregation in the north and especially in education
Racial violence had decreased
Many AA had been disappointed by life in the north i.e ghettos
A better climate!
Many had an affinity with the south i.e culture, food, language and music

Question 33

change in Atlanta

Answer 33

In 1973 Maynard Jackson became Atlanta’s first black mayor and he remained in office until 1981. Black political control had a great impact on AA in the city

Question 34

political impact of Maynard Jackson

Answer 34

1. It reinforced black middle-class involvement in the city’s business and social affairs for example, Jesse Hill was hired as the first black officer at the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce and became its president in 1977
2. Black employment in public departments rapidly increased. Jackson hired Atlanta’s first affirmative action officer and the proportion of black public employees in professional positions rose from 19.2% to 42.2% between 1973 and 78. The proportion of black managers rose from 13.5% to 32.6%. Jackson was assisted by the 1972 Equal Employment Opportunities Act, which expanded the prohibition against discrimination in the 1964 CRA to include state and local government jobs
3. Jackson increased the % of city contracts awarded to black firms by 25%. And the proportion of city funds paid to black firms rose from 2% to 33%. For the first time, city funds were deposited in black-owned banks. J withdrew city money from one bank that refused to accept Affirmative Action.

Question 35

continuity in Atlanta despite Maynard Jacksons actions

Answer 35

Despite the advances evidenced in Atlanta, it is unrealistic to see the South as totally transformed. By 1980 the increase in black voter resignation had still not led to a great increase in the number of black elected officials in Deep South states such as Georgia. Although AA constituted 27% of registered voters in Georgia in 1980, Georgia had only 249 elected officials - 3.7% of the state total. This was less than the average of 5% across the south as a whole. In 1980 nine of Georgia’s majority black counties still lacked black elected officials

Question 36

social and economic problems under Maynard Jackson

Answer 36

Social and economic deprivation continued. One-third of black Atlantans remained below the poverty line in 1980. In 1980, black unemployment in Georgia was 12.5% - three times the % of whites. Black unemployment was double that of the white population in Atlanta. Despite all the efforts and progress since 1945, black economic, social and political inequality continued