After M2 Content

Question 1

common theme in reproductive biology

Answer 1

cheap sperm and costly eggs

Question 2

common theme in reproductive biology: males

Answer 2

reproductive success limited by access to females

Question 3

common theme in reproductive biology: females

Answer 3

limited by how many eggs she can produce and fecundity

Question 4

sexual selection

Answer 4

differential reproductive success as a result of variation in the ability to obtain mates

Question 5

primary traits

Answer 5

directly relating to offspring

Question 6

secondary traits

Answer 6

affect rate of sexual success

Question 7

How to determine which sex experiences stronger sexual selection?

Answer 7

the sex with greater variance in the reproductive success

Question 8

Bateman’s principle

Answer 8

in most species, variability in reproductive success is greater in males than females

Question 9

Can the types of sexual selection operate at the same time?

Answer 9

yes

Question 10

male to male competition

Answer 10

males compete directly with each other

Question 11

alternative mating strategies

Answer 11

variation in male phenotypes, negative frequency dependent selection for dif. male phenotypes

Question 12

sperm competition

Answer 12

remove sperm from previous males

Question 13

infanticide

Answer 13

kill babies

Question 14

Factors that cause mating preferences to evolve

Answer 14

direct and indirect benefits

Question 15

direct benefits

Answer 15

benefits that affect a particular female directly, such as food, nest sites or protection

Question 16

example of direct beneftis

Answer 16

nupital gifts, parental care

Question 17

indirect benefits

Answer 17

Good genes hypothesis and Fisher’s runaway hypothesis

Question 18

Good genes hypothesis

Answer 18

efficient metabolism, body condition, resistance to parasites/ disease

Question 19

fisher’s runaway hypothesis

Answer 19

males with orange preferred by females, orange males have more offspring, daughter of orange dads prefer orange males

Question 20

testing for sensory bias

Answer 20

females exhibit a sensory bias where they have preference for a trait, regardless of a link to health or fitness. therefore, males exhibiting traits that match this preference get more mating opportunities

Question 21

coding regions in the genome

Answer 21

genes, start and stop codons (ORF), have exons which are translated into proteins

Question 22

non-coding regions in the genome

Answer 22

regulatory elements, introns, non coding RNAs, transposable elements, pseudogenes

Question 23

How genome variation occurs

Answer 23

gene duplication and losses

Question 24

unequal crossing over

Answer 24

recombination happens between dif positions in chromosomes that are misaligned during meiosis

Question 25

replication slippage

Answer 25

DNAP loses its place and copies a chromosome segment twice

Question 26

retrotransposition

Answer 26

mRNA reverse transcribed to DNA

Question 27

duplications: pseudogenization

Answer 27

gene copy is off

Question 28

duplications: dosage effect

Answer 28

increased protein product is -unstable: gene copy lost -adaptive: gene copy fixes

Question 29

duplications: subfunctionalization

Answer 29

novel function in duplicate, gene copy fixes

Question 30

homology: orthologs

Answer 30

genes in two different species that evolved from a common ancestral gene due to speciation

Question 31

homology: paralogs

Answer 31

genes that are related by duplication within the same genome

Question 32

gene families

Answer 32

formed by duplications of ancestral genes. share similar biological function. can be located closely together in the genome or on different chromosomes

Question 33

evolution of non coding regions

Answer 33

accumulate mutations faster and mutations not removed by selection

Question 34

evolution of coding regions

Answer 34

synonymous changes accumulate more in genome than non-syn changes

Question 35

evolution of coding regions by genetic drift

Answer 35

primary driver of variation in DNA sequences

Question 36

evolution of coding regions by natural selection

Answer 36

negative selection: remove deleterious alleles from population positive selection: advantageous alleles increase in freq. in population

Question 37

dN/dS=1

Answer 37

neutral selection, no selective pressure

Question 38

dN/dS<1

Answer 38

negative selection, selective pressure to stay the same

Question 39

dN/dS>1

Answer 39

positive selection, selective pressure to change

Question 40

regulatory networks consist of interactions between

Answer 40

genes, transcription factors, promoters and RNA

Question 41

function like biological circuits

Answer 41

developmental pathways, cell cycles and metabolic pathways

Question 42

venom evolution

Answer 42

half are housekeeping genes, half encode venom molecules

Question 43

How did venom production begin evolving?

Answer 43

in a common ancestor, then diverged across species

Question 44

What is the gene involved in venom evolution and its function?

Answer 44

Defensin genes. ancestrally, fought pathogens. mutations led to expansion of venom genes

Question 45

What is a genetic toolkit?

Answer 45

ancient and conserved gene regulatory networks. consistently regulate the development of similar complex phenotypes. small changes in timing and space of expression can lead to phenotypic changes

Question 46

Hox genes

Answer 46

assign different developing sections of the body to different body parts. expressed at different times during development

Question 47

morphological evolution

Answer 47

changes in timing and location of expression of developmental genes. can alter shape or size of limbs

Question 48

plant morphology

Answer 48

leaves come in range of shapes and sizes. Result of developmental genes expressed in the shoot apical meristem

Question 49

social behavior tool kit

Answer 49

feeding, chemical, mechanical and visual cues. abiotic effects, symbiont, parasite, pathogen effects, predator, competitor effects

Question 50

evolution of eyes

Answer 50

Opsin gene in early animals was duplicated. two genes: different tasks related to light

Question 51

crystallins

Answer 51

evolved from heat shock proteins. new function: focus light

Question 52

constraining evolution

Answer 52

physical, pleiotropy, existing developmental phenotypes, genetic variation

Question 53

parallelism

Answer 53

convergent evolution that results from mutations to the same genes in different lineages

Question 54

convergent evolution

Answer 54

two distantly related lineages evolve the same phenotype by different routes