Aggression Flashcards
1
Q
Define limbic system
A
Subcortical structures in the brain (including the hypothalamus and amygdala) thought to be involved in regulating emotional behaviour including aggression
2
Q
Define serotonin
A
A neurotransmitter with widespread inhibitory effects throughout the brain. It has a key role in aggressive behaviour and regulates impulsive behaviour at normal concentrations in the OFC (Denson 2012)
3
Q
Define testosterone
A
A hormone from the androgen group produced mainly in the Male Testes associated with aggressiveness
4
Q
Summarise the research conducted by Gospic (2011)
A
- Study involving ultimatum game
- When responders rejected unfair monetary reward (a social provocation), activity within the amygdala increased as seen by fMRI scans
- Benzodiazepines reduced this activity of the amygdala and reduced rejection offers by 50%
- Suggests a strong link between autonomic nervous system (amygdala) and aggression
5
Q
Summarise the research by Virkunnen (1994)
A
- Level of serotonin break down product in spinal fluid of violent and non violent offenders
- Lower levels in violent offenders, with
- Suggests less serotonin to start
- Serotonin also controls sleep patterns
- Implies lower serotonin has a link to aggression
- However, research was only correlational
6
Q
AO3: Why may there be an over-reliance of the limbic system in the explanation of aggression?
A
- OFC may also have a rule due to its link with serotonin
- May be more effective to focus on neural connections between OFC and limbic system as suggested by Gospic
7
Q
AO3: What is the evidence for increasing serotonin and decreasing aggression?
A
- Berman found P’s who were given a serotonin agonist paroxetine (also binds to serotonin receptors), less aggressive behaviour was seen compared to control
- Measured by playing video games and how many electric shocks were given
8
Q
Summarise the research by Dolan (2011)
A
- Violent prisoners in maximum security prisoners displayed higher levels of aggression
- Suggests positive correlation
9
Q
AO3: Why has it been argued that testosterone does not act alone?
A
- Carre and Mehta (2011) suggest a dual hormone hypothesis
- Cortisol is the antagonist
- Aggression is only present with high testosterone AND low cortisol levels
- Implies different hormones have different predictive values and should be taken into account
10
Q
Summarise the research by Eisenegger (2009)
A
- P’s with testosterone made better offers than placebo
- Placebo offers actually acted more aggressively thought to be because of demand characteristics
- Suggests hormone affects sensitivity to status, and in simple animals aggression works unlike in humans
11
Q
Define genetic factors
A
Factors that affect gene production and expression and hence may have an impact on the psychological features of a human such as intelligence and mental disorders
12
Q
Define MAOA gene
A
The gene responsible for the activity of the enzyme monoamine oxidase in the brain. The low activity variant of this gene is associated with aggressive behaviour
13
Q
Summarise research by Coccaro (1997)
A
- MZ 100% and DZ 50%
- Concordance rate of 50% for MZ and 19% for DZ in terms of physical acts of aggression
- Strongly suggests genetic basis for aggression
14
Q
Summarise research by Rhee and Waldman (2002)
A
- Meta analysis of adoptees suffering from aggressive behaviour and APD
- Genetic influence accounted for 41% of variance in aggression
- Suggests genetic basis and supports twin studies
15
Q
What is the role of the MAOA gene in aggression
A
- Codes for monoamine oxidase which breaks down serotonin in synaptic cleft leading to 5HIAA metabolite
- Less enzyme = more serotonin = more aggression
16
Q
Summarise the research by Brunner (1993)
A
- Studied 28 males from large Dutch family who were all aggressive (rape)
- All had low MAOA levels, suggesting less serotonin broken down and hence more attaches to receptors
17
Q
What did Frazzetto (2007) suggest?
A
- More beneficial to take an interactionist approach
- Low MAOA only caused aggression when accompanied by traumatic childhood
- Gene and environment interaction should be considered
- Supports diathesis stress model where the MAOA is the diathesis and the stress is abuse
18
Q
AO3: What is the problem with the diathesis stress model in aggression research?
A
- Distinguish between effects of nature (MAOA) and nurture (Abuse)
- Which has more of an influence
- McDermott (2009) found provocation in a money lending game triggered aggression in low MAOA gene people
- Before, they displayed the same levels of aggressive behaviour
- Although interactionist better than bio determinism, there is still a lack of clarity of the stressor
19
Q
AO3: What is the evidence for more MAOA gene and more prosocial behaviour?
A
- Mertins (2011) found P’s with high MAOA were more compassionate in a money lending game with fewer provocations and refusals
- Suggests link between MAOA and aggression is valid as correlations in both directions can be supported
20
Q
AO3: What is the evidence for the link between MAOA and serotonin?
A
- Animals studies where researchers prevent MAOA expression
- Godar (2014) found when MAOA was off, mice were hyper-aggressive due to less serotonin break down so more stimulation
- Increases validity of MAOA aggression link
21
Q
Define ethological explanation
A
An explanation that seeks to understand the innate behaviour of animals by studying them in the natural environment
22
Q
Define innate releasing mechanism
A
A biological structure or process which is activated by an external stimulus that triggers a fixed action or pattern
23
Q
Define fixed action patterns
A
A sequence of stereotyped pre-programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism
24
Q
What are the adaptive functions of aggression?
A
- Aggression increases chance of survival as defeated animal must find other territory so more resources available
- Aggression increases social status in a hierarchy which gives special status such as mating rights
25
Summarise research by Pettit (1988)
- Studied groups of children
| - Found they use aggressive tactics in playgrounds to assert authority and have their way
26
Summarise ritualistic behaviour in aggression
- A ritual is a set of behaviours
- Lorenz found little physic damage caused in animal fights in a species
- The fights end with ritual appeasement to accept defeat which ultimately inhibit aggression
- Adaptive as if every aggressive encounter ended in death, the existence of a species could be threatened so survival increased
27
Summarise IRM
- Built in process or structure
| - Stimulus causes IRM which releases a fixed action pattern
28
What did Lea (1984) conclude about FAPs?
- Stereotyped and unchanging
- Universal as found in all species
- Unaffected by learning
- Ballistic as it follows an inevitable course
- Single purpose
- A response to identifiable, specific sign stimuli
29
Summarise the procedure of Tinbergen (1951)
- Male sticklebacks highly territorial during mating season with a red spot that develops on belly
- If another male enters their territory, a sequence of aggressive behaviours occur
- Sign stimulus that causes IRM is the red spot
- Tinbergen made different wooden models
30
Summarise the findings of Tinbergen (1951)
- Regardless of shape, a red spot would activate an IRM
- No red spot caused no aggression, even when the model was realistic
- Aggressive FAPs unchanged from one encounter to another and always ran its course
31
AO3: What is the evidence against the ethological explanation of aggression?
- Goodall (2010) found chimpanzees systematically slaughtered all members of another group
- Shows evidence for FAP running its course
- However, the chimpanzees still slaughtered when appeasement was shown
- These did not inhibit aggression and hence do not coincide with the ethological explanation
32
AO3: Why may FAPs be modal rather than fixed?
- Hunt (1973) provided evidence to show duration of FAP may change within individuals and within the same animal from encounter to encounter
- Suggests environmental and social factors have an influence of the course of an FAP
- Reduces validity of the universal nature FAPs as an ethological explanation of aggression
33
AO3: What is the evidence tosh-port the biological, innate basis of IRM and FAP?
- Brunner's research (1993) showed aggression and MAOA linked and hence provides evidence for heritability of IRM and FAP
- This is due to increased testosterone and a stressor
- The role of the limbic system and IRM can hence be considered a valid explanation of aggression
34
Define evolutionary explanation
An account that changes in species over millions of years; characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction are naturally selected
35
Summarise sexual jealousy and its link to aggression
- Sexual jealousy motivates aggressive behaviour in males
- This is due to the fact that men cannot be certain of paternity and hence is an evolutionary disadvantage
- Male wastes resources on another child who does not share the same genes
- Cuckoldry
- These anti-cuckoldry behaviours drive aggressive behaviour to retain partners and prevent straying
36
What did Wilson and Daly (1996) identify? What did Wilson find?
Two mate retention strategies:
- Direct guarding where there is male vigilance over a partner's behaviour
- Negative inducements such as threats with dire consequences if infidelity occurs
- Wilson (1995) found women who reported mate retention strategies were twice as likely to suffer physical violence
- 73% required medical attention and 53% feared for their lives
37
Summarise the procedure of Shackelford (2005)
- Men and women in 107 married (less than a year) couples completed different questionnaires
- Men assessed on mate retention
- Women assessed on partner's violence
38
Summarise the findings of Shackelford (2005)
- Positive correlation between men's reports of retention behaviour and physical violence
- The use of retention behaviours reliably predicted husbands' use of violence against their wives
39
What is the evolutionary explanation of bullying?
- Not due to poor social skills or family dysfunction
- Due to power imbalance and evolutionary advantages
- May be to increase chances of survival by promoting health and opportunities
- Volk (2012) argued bullying characteristics are attractive to the opposite sex as it shows dominance and resource in males
- It also wards of potential rivals
- Naturally selected as provides more females and less male competition
- Women bully to ensure fidelity so resource kept
40
AO3: Why is it a strength that the evolutionary explanation takes into account gender differences?
- Campbell (1999) suggested females are more likely to engage in acts of verbal aggression to aid own survival and offspring survival
- Also prevents females from being involved in life threatening physical confrontation
- Increases validity of the evolutionary explanation
41
AO3: What is the research support for the link between sexual jealousy and aggression
- Shackelford's (2005) study showed mate retention is a method of expressing sexual jealousy
- Increases reliability of evolutionary aggression theory concerning adaptive value of aggression
42
AO3: Why are there methodological issues associated with evolutionary theories? Why are there cultural differences?
- Studies are firstly correlational and hence another factor may be involved
- Studies accused of being post-hoc and the fallacy or arguing one event caused by another merely because it occurred after that event
- Kung San people are less aggressive with aggression causing no social status
- Yanomamo people are fierce people
- Evolution would suggest all should be aggressive as innate basis
43
Define social psychological explanations of aggression
Any theory that argues aggression is the result of an interaction between an individuals characteristics and features of the situations where the behaviour occurs
44
Define frustration-aggression hypothesis
A social psychological theory that argues anger, hostility and violence are always the outcome when we are prevented from achieving our goals in terms of aggression
45
Summarise the research of Dollard (1939)
- Dollard suggested frustration always leads to aggression and aggression always the result of frustration
- Based on psychodynamic catharsis
- Catharsis = Concept that if we get frustrated we develop an ‘aggression drive’ which needs to be released (e.g. verbal or physical aggressive act). Aggressive act meets aggressive drive and aggression less likely
46
Why is aggression not always expressed directly against the source of frustration? What happens when this occurs
- Cause may be abstract e.g economy
- Punishment if we release aggression
- Cause may be unavailable at the time
- Aggression displaced onto an alternative
47
Summarise the procedure of Green (1968)
- Studied male uni students
- 3 conditions whilst carrying out a task
- P either solved impossible puzzle, was interfered with or insulted by confederate
- Shocks were then given to measure aggression
48
Summarise the findings of Green (1968)
- Insulted participants gave the strongest shocks, followed by interfered group and then impossible task
- All groups shocked more than control
- Supports Dollard that frustration displaced onto other targets when aggression cannot be reduced by drive reduction immediately
49
Summarise the procedure of Berkowitz (1989)
- P's given electric shocks in lab situation to create anger and frustration
- P then could give shock back
50
Summarise the findings of Berkowitz (1989)
- Number of shocks dependant of weapons present in lab
- Two guns = 6.07 shocks
- No guns = 4.67
- Weapons effect, supports Berkowitz who suggested aggressive cues stimulate aggression
51
AO3: What is the real life application of Berkowitz's research?
- Some argue guns should not be readily given to individuals
- Nor should they be carried in plain sight even by officers as this may stimulate aggressive behaviour when considering results from the study
52
AO3: Why may all types of frustration not lead to aggression?
- Dill and Anderson (1995 showed different kinds of frustration have different effects
- Origami presentation was rushed and was either justified (boss told him to finish) and unjustified (girlfriend waiting)
- Aggression most in unjust, then just, then control
- Important to distinguish between types of frustration and how they contribute to the development of aggression
53
AO3: Why is there doubt of the concept of catharsis?
- Bushman 2002 found P's who vented anger to a punchbag actually became more angry
- Doing nothing was more effective than acting out
- Outcome different from the frustration aggression hypothesis
- Reduces validity of explanation
- May also have real life application in therapy if told to vent out anger
54
Define social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
55
What did Bandura suggest about SLT?
- Social process
- Occurs through the observation and imitation of specific behaviours by role models
- Learning occurs directly by classical/operant and indirectly through vicarious reinforcement
- Reinforcement increases likelihood behaviour is repeated and punishment decreases this
56
What are the 4 meditational/cognitive factors in SLT and its role in aggression?
- Attention = Pay attention to aggressive actions
- Retention = Remember aggressive actions
- Reproduction = Must be able to transform mental representation of behaviour into physical acts
- Motivation = Reason to imitate behaviour
57
What usb self-efficacy?
The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal. Aggression increases as a child believes it shows rewards. Self-efficacy increases with each successful outcome
58
Summarise Bandura's (1961) Bobo doll study procedure
- Young children observed adult model assaulting bobo doll including kicking, shouting and punching
- Period of time where child was not allowed to play with doll to create frustration
- Child then allowed to play with the doll and other toys
59
Summarise Bandura's (1961) Bobo doll study findings
- Without instruction, those who observed aggression were aggressive and imitated closely
- Control who did not observe aggressive behaviour did not behave aggressively
60
AO3: What is a biological weakness of the Bobo doll study?
- No biological factors
- Thought that boys always behave more aggressively than girls due to more of the androgen testosterone as demonstrated by Virkkunen (1994)
- SLT is an incomplete explanation of aggression
61
AO3: What is a methodological problem with the Bobo doll study?
- Low mundane realism and demand characteristics
- Purpose of Bobo doll is to hit and act aggressively
- Children believed this was expected so acted accordingly
- Influence of modelling, imitation and meditational processes may be small in this case and hence SLY a limited explanation for only some examples of aggression
62
AO3: What is a practical application of understanding SLT and aggression?
- Better treatment for adolescents with aggression
- Based on reciprocal inhibition where individuals play an active role in learning through mediation
- Each individual operates on their environment which operates on them through reciprocal determinism
- Useful as shows we have influence over learning, so if we are compassionate and non-violent, this decreases aggression
- Links with the media
63
Define deindividuation
A psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of the social group when in a crowd or wearing a uniform. The result is to be free from social norm constraints
64
What did Le Bon (1895) suggest?
- Deindividuation is characteristic of crowd or group behaviour where we feel no personal responsibility for our actions as it is shared among the group. We also do not fear retaliation as we are just an anonymous face in a large crowd
65
What did Zimbardo suggests about deindividuation?
When we enter a group, our behaviour becomes antinormative as opposed to restrained by social norms. Laws and social norms hence do not apply to behaviour as we cannot be judged due to anonymity
66
What did Prentice-Dunn and Rogers (1982) suggest?
Consequences of anonymity create greater likelihood of aggression which expresses itself in two ways:
- Private self-awareness concerns how we pay attention to our own feelings which is reduced when in a crowd
- Public self-awareness refers to how much we care about what other people think which is reduced in a crowd
67
Summarise the procedure of Dodd (1985)
- 229 undergraduate students in 13 classes asked what could they do if they had no consequences
- Responses anonymous
68
Summarise the findings of Dodd (1985)
- 36% of responses involved antisocial behaviour
- 26% were criminal acts
- Only 9% were prosocial
- Supports link between anonymity, de-individuation and aggressive behaviour
69
AO3: What are the practical applications of understanding deindividuation in the media?
- Douglas and McGarty (2001) found within chatrooms/xbox that most violent messages were sent by anonymous users
- Supports idea that deindividuation leads to diminished feelings of ones own responsibility for their actions resulting in disinhibition and aggression
70
AO3: What is the lack of support for deindividuation?
- Gergen (1973) selected groups of 8 P's
- Told can do whatever they want in the dark
- Talking, kissing and intimate touching ensued
- When old anonymity would not be guaranteed, this behaviour stopped
- Does not support as aggression was not an observed behaviour
71
AO3: Why may deindividuation and diminished responsibility be overemphasised?
- Spears and Lea (1992) applied SLT to deindividuation
- Focus shifted from attention to oneself to one as part of a group causing conformity to the norms of behaviour in the group
- Deindividuation is only a partial explanation for aggression and private/public self awareness is more important
72
Define institutional aggression
Aggressive or violent behaviour that takes place within the social context of a prison or other formal organised setting
73
Define dispositional explanations
Any explanation of behaviour that highlights the importance of the individuals personality
74
Define situational explanations
Any explanation that identifies the cause of behaviour as existing within the environment, which may include the presence of others
75
Summarise the importation model
- Irwin + Cressey (1962)
- Aggression caused by individual differences of the individual
- McManimon (2005) suggested prisoners behave the same whether in prison or not due to dispositions such as drug abuse or trauma
- These predispose them to aggression to navigate around prison which is accepted by prison subculture
76
Summarise research into the importation model
- DeLisi (2011) studied 813 juveniles in California
- Found inmates with certain traits such as trauma more likely to be violent and suicidal when compared to control with fewer negative traits
77
Summarise the deprivation model
- Clemmer (1958)
- Prison associated factors determine aggressive behaviour such as lack of goods and fulfilment of psychological needs
- This increases competition and causes disputes
78
Summarise research into the deprivation model
- Steiner (2009) conducted meta-analysis of factors predicting inmate aggression in 512 USA prisons
- Higher female staff, protective custody and more ethnic backgrounds caused more conflict
- All prison level as independent of personality
79
AO3: What is a weakness of the importation model?
- Inadequate as ignores role of officials and running of prison
- Dilulio (1991) suggested Administrative control model better suited which states poorly managed prisons more likely to cause aggression
- Poor management includes weak leadership, informal rules and distant staff with no education for inmates
- These are the factors that are more influential in determining aggression
80
AO3: What is the supporting evidence for the deprivation model of aggression
- Cunningham (2010) analysed 35 inmate homicides
- Motivations related to deprivations identified by Clemmer e.g drugs
- These factors are predicted by the model and hence support its validity
81
AO3: Why may an interactionist approach be better in terms of explaining prison violence?
- Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando (2002) suggested importation better for inmate violence and deprivation for inmate-staff violence
- Dobbs and Waid stated situational and dispositional at ends of the nature nurture debate
- Stress and unfamiliarity increases dispositional factors in development of aggression
- More research into the interaction between both needed as one may not need the other to cause aggression and vice versa
