All Flashcards
(176 cards)
1
Q
What is the origin of the word ‘psychology’?
A
‘Psychology’ is derived from the Greek words ‘psyche’ (meaning mind, soul, or spirit) and ‘logos’ (meaning study, knowledge, or discourse).
2
Q
How is psychology defined as a modern discipline?
A
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
3
Q
What does behavior include?
A
Behavior includes all of a person’s overt actions and reactions, which can be observed by others, such as eating, talking, smiling, and working.
4
Q
What are mental processes?
A
Mental processes refer to all the covert activities that other people cannot directly observe, such as thinking, dreaming, feeling, and remembering.
5
Q
What are the two purposes of studying animal behavior?
A
- It is ethically forbidden to conduct some experiments on human beings, so animals are subject to experiment.
- Conclusions obtained from experiments on animal behavior are usually applicable to human behavior.
6
Q
What is the first goal of psychology?
A
Description: Naming and classifying; making a detailed record of behavioral observations.
7
Q
What does the explanation goal in psychology seek to find?
A
The explanation goal seeks to find out ‘why is it happening?’
8
Q
What does the prediction goal in psychology involve?
A
The ability to forecast behavior accurately.
9
Q
What is the control goal in psychology?
A
Manipulation or managing of a situation based on description, explanation, & prediction.
10
Q
What does clinical psychology focus on?
A
Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders.
11
Q
What is the focus of cognitive psychology?
A
Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of higher mental processes.
12
Q
What does developmental psychology examine?
A
Developmental psychology examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death.
13
Q
What is the main emphasis of social psychology?
A
Social psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others.
14
Q
Who founded structuralism in psychology?
A
Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.
15
Q
What method did Wilhelm Wundt use to analyze mental elements?
A
Wundt used an experimental method called introspection.
16
Q
What are the three basic mental elements identified by Wundt?
A
- Sensations
- Images
- Feelings
17
Q
What is functionalism in psychology?
A
Functionalism is the belief that psychology should focus on the usefulness or functions of mental abilities.
18
Q
Who is associated with the development of behaviorism?
A
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.
19
Q
What is the central tenet of behaviorism according to John B. Watson?
A
Psychology should focus only on measurable and observable behavior.
20
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Operant conditioning is learning by the consequences of behavior, emphasized by B.F. Skinner.
21
Q
What is psychoanalysis?
A
Psychoanalysis is a personality theory and approach to psychotherapy founded by Sigmund Freud.
22
Q
What are the four psychoanalytic methods of therapy?
A
- Free Association
- Dream Analysis
- Transference
- Hypnosis
23
Q
What does the psychodynamic perspective emphasize?
A
The psychodynamic perspective emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships.
24
Q
What does Gestalt psychology focus on?
A
Gestalt psychology focuses on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solving.
25
What does the term 'Gestalt' mean?
'Gestalt' means whole, configuration, or pattern.
26
What is the critique of Wundt's approach according to Gestalt psychologists?
Gestalt psychologists argue that 'the whole is more than the sum of its parts.'
27
What are the major perspectives of modern psychology?
* Psychoanalytic
* Behaviorism
* Humanism
* Cognitive
* Evolutionary
* Biological/Biomedical
* Sociocultural
* Psychodynamic
28
What is the main focus of health psychology?
Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease.
29
What is the primary goal of counseling psychology?
Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.
30
Fill in the blank: The study of how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors is called _______.
Evolutionary psychology
31
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through reinforcements (rewards) and punishments.
32
What is the fundamental belief of humanistic psychology?
People are innately good.
33
Who studied cognitive development in children?
Jean Piaget.
34
What does evolutionary psychology examine?
Psychological traits from a modern evolutionary perspective.
35
What is the focus of the biological perspective in psychology?
The brain, nervous system, neurotransmitters, and hormones.
36
Who developed the sociocultural theory?
Lev Vygotsky.
37
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance.
38
What is the purpose of experimental research?
To study the cause and effect relationship between variables.
39
Define the independent variable (IV) in an experiment.
The variable manipulated by the experimenter.
40
What is a control group?
A group similar to the experimental group but not exposed to the treatment.
41
What is the smallest amount of energy that can reliably be detected called?
Absolute threshold.
42
What is transduction in the context of sensation?
The process of changing physical energy into electrical signals.
43
Fill in the blank: The _______ threshold is the smallest difference that can be detected when two stimuli are compared.
Difference.
44
What does sensory adaptation refer to?
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
45
What is sensory deprivation?
The absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation.
46
What is selective attention?
The process of selecting stimuli to which we will attend.
47
What are Gestalt principles?
Rules that describe how humans naturally organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes.
48
True or False: Correlational studies establish causality.
False.
49
What is the significance of the correlation coefficient (r)?
It indicates the degree to which two or more variables are related.
50
What is the main disadvantage of survey research?
Sampling issues and potential inaccuracy in responses.
51
What are the two types of binocular cues for depth perception?
Retinal disparity and convergence.
52
What does the term 'figure-ground organization' refer to?
The organization of visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).
53
What is the role of receptor cells in sensation?
To transduce physical stimulation into electrochemical messages for the brain.
54
Fill in the blank: _______ is the processing of information done by the brain.
Perception.
55
What is depth perception?
The ability to judge the distance of objects
56
What are the two kinds of binocular cues?
* Retinal disparity
* Convergence
57
What does retinal disparity refer to?
The degree of difference between the images of an object focused on the two retinas
58
How does convergence relate to depth perception?
It refers to the degree to which the eyes turn inward to focus on an object
59
What is accommodation in terms of monocular cues?
The change in the shape of the lens that allows focus on an object
60
What is motion parallax?
The tendency to perceive closer objects as moving faster than those farther away
61
What are pictorial cues?
Monocular cues used by artists to create depth in drawings and paintings
62
What does interposition refer to in monocular cues?
Objects that occlude other objects tend to be perceived as closer
63
What is the light and shadow cue in depth perception?
Nearby objects reflect more light than distant objects, affecting perceived distance
64
What is size constancy?
The perception of familiar objects as having a constant size despite changes in distance
65
Define shape constancy.
The perception of familiar objects as having a constant shape despite changes in viewpoint
66
What is brightness constancy?
The perception of objects as having constant brightness despite changing illumination
67
What is location constancy?
The perception of stationary objects as remaining in the same place despite retinal movement
68
What is color constancy?
The perception of the color of objects as stable despite changing illumination
69
What is perceptual interpretation?
Generating meaning from sensory experience, influenced by past experiences
70
List some factors that influence perceptual interpretation.
* Beliefs
* Emotions
* Expectations
71
What is Extrasensory Perception (ESP)?
The claim of receiving information without the usual sensory channels
72
What are the four categories of ESP experiences?
* Telepathy
* Clairvoyance
* Precognition
* Psychokinesis
73
How is learning defined?
A relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience and training
74
What are the main characteristics of learning?
* Learning is growth
* Learning is adjustment
* Learning is organizing experience
* Learning is purposeful
* Learning is intelligent
* Learning is active
* Learning is both individual and social
* Learning is the product of environment
* True learning affects the conduct of the learner
75
What is the principle of intensity in learning?
Students learn more from real experiences than from substitutes
76
What factors influence learning?
* Motivation
* Maturation
* Health condition
* Psychological well-being
* Good working conditions
* Background experiences
* Length of working period
* Massed vs. distributed learning
77
What is Pavlov's Classical Conditioning?
A process where a neutral stimulus acquires characteristics of a natural stimulus through pairing
78
What is the difference between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus?
Neutral stimulus does not naturally bring about a response; unconditioned stimulus does
79
What is the conditioned response (CR)?
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS)
80
What does acquisition mean in classical conditioning?
The process of developing a learned response
81
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
The diminishing of a learned response when the unconditioned stimulus does not follow the conditioned stimulus
82
What is stimulus generalization?
When a conditioned response follows a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus
83
What is stimulus discrimination?
The ability to differentiate between two distinct stimuli, evoking a conditioned response from one but not the other
84
What is the role of time laps in effective conditioning?
The time between the presentations of the CS and UCS should be short, ideally from half a second to a few seconds
85
What is the ability to differentiate between stimuli called?
Discrimination
## Footnote
An example is distinguishing between the behavior of a growling dog and a friendly one.
86
What is the ideal time lapse between the presentations of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) for effective conditioning?
Small, ranging from half to a few seconds.
87
What is delayed conditioning?
Presenting the CS first and letting it remain at least until the onset of the UCS.
88
What does trace conditioning refer to?
Presenting the CS first and ending before the onset of the UCS.
89
What is simultaneous conditioning?
Beginning and ending the CS and the UCS together.
90
What is backward conditioning?
The onset of the UCS precedes the onset of the CS.
91
What is operant conditioning?
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened based on its consequences.
92
What does the term 'operant' emphasize in operant conditioning?
The organism operates on its environment to produce a desirable result.
93
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
The careful use of selective reinforcement to bring about desirable changes in behavior.
94
What does extinction refer to in operant conditioning?
The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditional response if it is not reinforced.
95
What is reinforcement in the context of operant conditioning?
The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.
96
What is a positive reinforcer?
A stimulus added to the environment that increases a preceding response.
97
What is a negative reinforcer?
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus that increases the probability of a preceding response being repeated.
98
True or False: Negative reinforcement is the same as punishment.
False.
99
What is positive punishment?
Weakening a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
100
What is negative punishment?
The removal of something pleasant to decrease the likelihood of a prior behavior.
101
What are schedules of reinforcement?
The frequency and timing of reinforcement that follows desired behavior.
102
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
Reinforcement given every time a behavior occurs.
103
What is a partial reinforcement schedule?
Reinforcement given some but not all of the time.
104
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
Reinforcement given after a specific number of responses.
105
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses.
106
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
Reinforcement provided after a fixed amount of time.
107
What is a variable-interval schedule?
Reinforcement provided after varying amounts of time.
108
What is the Premack principle?
Using a more preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred activity.
109
Who is the prime proponent of Social Learning Theory?
Albert Bandura.
110
What is vicarious learning?
Learning by seeing the consequence of another person's behavior.
111
What are the four conditions necessary for observational learning?
* Attention
* Retention
* Production
* Motivation and reinforcement
112
What does reciprocal determinism refer to?
The interaction of the person, their behavior, and the physical environment.
113
What is an implication of Social Learning Theory in education?
Students often learn a great deal simply by observing others.
114
What is cognitive learning theory?
The belief that thought processes significantly influence learning.
115
True or False: Learning can occur without an immediate change in behavior.
True.
116
What is self-efficacy in the context of education?
The belief that one can accomplish school tasks.
117
What is the importance of developing a sense of _______ for students?
self-efficacy
## Footnote
Self-efficacy is crucial for students to believe in their ability to accomplish school tasks.
118
According to cognitive learning theorists, what influences the learning process?
Thinking, belief, motivation, attitude
## Footnote
These cognitive factors significantly affect how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved.
119
What is latent learning?
Learning that occurs but is not evident until later
## Footnote
It occurs without reinforcement and involves changes in the processing of information.
120
In Tolman and Honzik's experiment, which group of rats displayed latent learning?
Group 3
## Footnote
Group 3 rats did not receive food for ten days but learned the maze layout and quickly reached the food when it was provided.
121
What is a cognitive map?
A mental representation of spatial locations and directions
## Footnote
It helps individuals navigate their environment, similar to how rats learned the maze.
122
What is insight learning?
A cognitive process of reorganizing perception to solve a problem
## Footnote
It involves understanding various parts of a problem without conditioning specific behaviors.
123
Who studied insight learning in chimpanzees?
Wolfgang Kohler
## Footnote
Kohler observed chimpanzees solving problems by stacking boxes to reach a banana.
124
What are the three basic steps of the memory process?
* Encoding
* Storage
* Retrieval
## Footnote
These steps describe how information is processed, maintained, and accessed.
125
What type of memory is sensory memory?
The initial storage area for unprocessed information
## Footnote
It receives information from the environment and has a large capacity but short duration.
126
What is the duration of information in short-term memory (STM)?
20 to 30 seconds
## Footnote
STM holds information temporarily and requires rehearsal to maintain it.
127
What are the two types of rehearsal in short-term memory?
* Maintenance Rehearsal
* Elaborative Rehearsal
## Footnote
Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information, while elaborative rehearsal connects new information to existing knowledge.
128
What is long-term memory (LTM)?
A relatively permanent storage of meaningful information
## Footnote
LTM holds well-learned facts, events, and skills with no practical limits on capacity or duration.
129
What are the two categories of long-term memory?
* Declarative/Explicit Memory
* Non-declarative/Implicit Memory
## Footnote
Declarative memory includes facts and experiences, while non-declarative memory involves skills and actions.
130
What is the primacy effect?
Better recall of items at the beginning of a list
## Footnote
This effect occurs because the first items are processed thoroughly in short-term memory.
131
What is the recency effect?
Better recall of items at the end of a list
## Footnote
This effect happens because the last items remain in short-term memory.
132
What is decay theory in the context of forgetting?
Memory traces fade over time if not accessed
## Footnote
This theory suggests that memories weaken due to disuse and the passage of time.
133
What is proactive interference?
Old information interferes with the recall of new information
## Footnote
An example is calling a new girlfriend by the name of an old girlfriend.
134
What is motivated forgetting theory?
Forgetting due to blocking memories that are too threatening
## Footnote
People may forget painful experiences to cope better with life.
135
What is cue-dependent forgetting?
Forgetting that occurs when retrieval cues are lacking
## Footnote
Retrieval cues are necessary to access stored information effectively.
136
What is time management?
The ability to plan and control how time is spent
## Footnote
Effective time management allows individuals to achieve their goals and reduce stress.
137
What are some strategies for effective note-taking?
* Getting organized
* Recording notes in your own words
* Keeping notes brief and focused on main points
## Footnote
These strategies enhance the quality of notes taken during lectures.
138
What is the Cornell method of note-taking?
A method that divides the note page into three sections: Cue column, note-taking column, and summary
## Footnote
This structure helps organize notes effectively.
139
What should you keep in mind while taking notes during class?
The objective/theme of the class
## Footnote
This helps to maintain focus and relevance in note-taking.
140
What is the Cornell Method of note-taking?
Breaking the note page into three sections: Cue column, note-taking column, and summary
## Footnote
This method helps organize information effectively.
141
What is the purpose of reviewing notes after class?
To solidify understanding and connect new concepts with previous concepts
## Footnote
Reviewing soon after class enhances retention.
142
List some suggestions to help students during tests.
* Attend all classes
* Take organized and clear lecture notes
* Plan study time and set goals
* Use SQ3R study style
* Use memorizing techniques
* Organize information to remember
* Ask questions to increase understanding
* Utilize tutoring services
## Footnote
These strategies can improve test performance.
143
What is test anxiety?
A negative mood state characterized by bodily symptoms of physical tension and apprehension about an upcoming test/exam
## Footnote
It can affect performance significantly.
144
What are some physical symptoms of severe test anxiety?
* Headaches
* Nausea or diarrhea
* Extreme body temperature changes
* Excessive sweating
* Shortness of breath
* Light-headedness or fainting
* Rapid heartbeat
* Dry mouth
## Footnote
These symptoms can impede a student's ability to perform well on tests.
145
What is the SMART criteria for goal setting?
Goals should be Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented, Realistic, and Time-bound
## Footnote
This framework helps in effective goal setting.
146
Define career development.
A lifelong continuous process of planning, implementing, and managing one's learning, work, and leisure to achieve life objectives
## Footnote
It encompasses various aspects of life.
147
What are the two broad categories of motivation?
* Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
* Primary vs. Secondary Motivation
## Footnote
These classifications help understand different motivational drivers.
148
What is intrinsic motivation?
Motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake
## Footnote
Example: Studying hard because one enjoys it.
149
What is extrinsic motivation?
Motivation to engage in an activity as a means to achieve an end, based on external rewards
## Footnote
Example: Studying hard for a high test score.
150
What are primary motives?
Motives that are part of the biological makeup of the organism, based on physiological needs
## Footnote
Examples include hunger, thirst, and sleep.
151
What are secondary motives?
Motivation that arises through the organism's interaction with the environment, not naturally given
## Footnote
Examples include social motives and learned behaviors.
152
What does the drive-reduction approach to motivation involve?
The concepts of needs and drives, where a need leads to psychological tension and drive to fulfill it
## Footnote
It emphasizes homeostasis.
153
What is the arousal approach to motivation?
The idea that individuals seek to maintain an optimal level of stimulation and activity
## Footnote
It suggests balancing between too much and too little stimulation.
154
What is the incentive approach to motivation?
Motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards known as incentives
## Footnote
It combines internal drives with external incentives.
155
What does Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggest?
Needs at the lowest level must be at least partially satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating
## Footnote
It includes a structure of five classes of needs.
156
What is frustration in the context of motivation?
The blocking of any goal-directed behavior
## Footnote
It often results in emotional responses.
157
Describe approach-approach conflict.
Occurs when one is attracted to two or more desirable goals/outcomes
## Footnote
Generally causes little distress and is easily resolved.
158
What is avoidance-avoidance conflict?
Occurs when motivated to avoid two equally unattractive choices
## Footnote
It tends to involve significant vacillation and hesitation.
159
What is approach-avoidance conflict?
A conflict occurring when a person is motivated to both approach and avoid the same goal object
## Footnote
It often leads to frustration and hesitation.
160
What happens to negative valence as one gets closer to a goal?
The negative valence becomes stronger and the desire to flee increases.
## Footnote
This can lead to slower and more hesitant goal achievement.
161
What emotional reactions commonly accompany approach-avoidance conflicts?
Fear, anger, and resentment.
## Footnote
Examples include getting married or losing a job.
162
What are multiple approach-avoidance conflicts?
Situations involving several options, each with both positive and negative elements.
## Footnote
These conflicts are often the hardest to resolve and the most stressful.
163
Define emotion.
A state of arousal involving facial and body changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action, all shaped by cultural rules.
164
What are the three elements of emotion?
* Physiology
* Behavior
* Subjective experience
165
What physiological responses occur during an emotional experience?
Increased heart rate, rapid breathing, dilated pupils, and a dry mouth.
## Footnote
These responses are created by the sympathetic nervous system.
166
What does the behavior of emotion tell us?
It indicates how people behave in the grip of an emotion through facial expressions, body movements, and actions.
167
What is subjective experience in relation to emotion?
It involves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label, such as anger or happiness.
168
How can we know emotion in others?
Through non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, eye contact, body movements, posture, and touching.
169
What is the purpose of arousal in emotions?
To prepare us to make a needed response or to motivate actions like studying for a test.
170
What does the James-Lange Theory of Emotion state?
Emotion arises from awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.
171
What is the main idea of the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion?
Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion.
172
What are the two components of the Schachter and Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion?
* Physical arousal
* Cognitive labeling of the arousal
173
What does Lazarus Theory emphasize regarding emotion?
A thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal.
174
According to the Facial Feedback Theory, what cues our brains to provide the basis of our emotions?
Changes in our facial muscles.
175
Fill in the blank: According to the Facial Feedback Theory, when we smile, we experience _______.
pleasure or happiness.
176
Fill in the blank: In the event of fear, the sequence is Event _____ Thought _____ physical arousal + emotion.
_____
