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1
Q

what are the two mechanisms in the brain controlling stress in mammals?

A

sympathoadrenmedullary axis - autonomic

hypothalamic piutiary adreno cortical axis - slower resp longer duration

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2
Q

describe the action of the hpa axis in response to stress

A

stress exposure
paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus releases crh and avp
travel via the hypothesal portal system to anterior pituitary
a.pit release ACTH
into blood
to adrenal glands which secret glucocorticoids (cortisol) and calecholamins (adrenaline/nora)
there negative feedback to GR and AR in the hippo/hypo/a.pit in the brain

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3
Q

what do high levels of GR do to stress response?

A

more negative feedback

suppress response quicker

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4
Q

what effect do excess GC have on CNS?

A 
necrosis/aging neurogenesis
morphological changes
synaptic plastcity
neurochem syst 
combined effect on learning and memory
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5
Q

describe the experiments in rodent of maternal behaviour and stress

A

is variation in beahviour
better mother=groom more
offspring better mother lower stress response (CRH mRNA levels and G mRNA level)
better mothers better on morris water maze - better synaptic survival/intelligence

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6
Q

describe the experiments in rodent maternal beahviour and stress determining whether genetic or non inheritance

A

handle pups = worse mothers groom
handled offspring from bad mothers better groomers to their own offpsirng - e’life inf own mat car
cross foster= bad mum and good foster - low anxiety . good mum bad foster - low anxiety only in bad both - high anxiety - genomic info inv too

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7
Q

what is the role of NGIF-A and serotonin in maternal behaviour

A

serotonin activate cascade which alters levels of NGIF-A which is a TF
bad mums serotonin level static, no NGIF-A in hippo, methy of GR promoter gene (Nr3cl)
good mum incr serotonin high NGIF-A demthy G gene - incr G expr

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8
Q

describe the role of histone modifications on rat maternal behaviour

A

bad mums have low levels of active histon marks H3K9ac and H3K4me, chromatin repressive low G expr as pup =adult-higher cortisterone and anxiety
good mums high H3K9ac and H3K4me, marks, incr GR in hippo as pup,a adult lower anxiety and cortisterone

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9
Q

what examples in humans of early life stress imprinting behaviour

A

holocaust - incr risk PTSDManxitey depr

9/11 - beahvioural problems in preschool

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10
Q

what are the 3 models/hypothesis for stress and behaviour

A

cumulative stress = positive corr adult/e.life
mmismatch - e.life stress=better able to cope mismatch most sever
3d model-env/ind factors/gen background programme sensitvity

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11
Q

give an example of a genetic polymoprhism influecning adult behaviour

A

monoamine oxidase
inv in serotonin noradrenaline production
ko maoa - more agrr
maoa promoter polymoprhs control maoa activity
low maoa activity in boys at adol and adult antisoc behaviour
(mal treatment not incr risk of boys with high maoa acti)

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12
Q

is ptsd predisposed by hippo size?

A

low hippo size indicater ptsd

twin study low hippo size does predispose

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13
Q

what is genomic imprinting

A

epigenetic phenomemnon
genes expr in parent of origin manner
parental origin specific differential gene expression

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14
Q

describe the mouse experiments that discovered genomic imorinting

A

create a parthenogenic embryo - x2 mat genome
and a androgenic embry x2 pat genome
pg - impair placenta dev
ag - no embryo just extra embryonic tissue
need both parental genomes for deb
pat genome imp in placenta dev
mat genome imp in fetus dev

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15
Q

what do the findings that both maternal and paternal genomes suggest

A

that some genomes only from one genome are expressed

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16
Q

what theories are there for the evolution of imprinted gene and brief explain

A

parental conflict - pat/mat genes have coonflcit interest, mat gene want to reserve resource for future repr output where as pat gene sel favour genes that use resources as in competition / benefit own fitnes
coadaptation - imprint genes act coadaptively to optimise fetal dev and maternal provision

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17
Q

give an example of a imprinted gene that supports the parental conflict hypothesis

A

Igf2 norm pat expr
pat in placenta extract resources and encourage growth
mat gene codes the igf2r , when igf2 binds - destruction complex reduces the amount igf2
oppose eachother

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18
Q

give an example of an imprinted gene that supports the coadaptation hypothesis

A

Peg3
norm oat expr
in mother expr in hypo and regulates maternal behaviour and physiology (milk rel and m.care)
in young inv in suckling
KO - imapirmother behaviour and pup growth
komum Wt young - impair mat care
wt mum and ko pup (plac)- impair plac growth/
both result in delay growht and puberty onset - consequence same

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19
Q

what are ICRs

A

imprini=ting control regions
show parental allele specific DNA methy and chromatin mod
act when unmeth

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20
Q

give an example of methylation controlling expression of imprinted gene

A

igf2-h19
female expr - DMD/ has bind sites CTCF, when unmethy CTCF bind and prevent enh act of igf2 =h19 expr
male expr - DMDICR methy , CTCF can’t bind - igf2 expr

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21
Q

what the function Dnmt1

A

enzye in dna methyl mainatenance

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22
Q

what are hte phenotype of mouse chimeras of AG and PG embryos

A

PG N = large brain, decr body
AG N = small brain big body
suggest again the mat and pat genome have differnet interests regarding allocation of resources

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23
Q

what is turner syndrome

A

all cells in the body expressing x chr from same parent

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24
Q

what are the differences in cognitive finction depdning on if the X from dad or mum in Turner sydrome

A

Xm = 40% special needs/ 72% social difficulties
soem gene inv in behavior and social cognition are paternally imprint
siggest the primary mech factor contributing to some of hte se diff between the sexes genetic not hormonal

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25
what is the link autism and imprinting
argued disease of imprinted brain consequence sucess of pat brain and failure of mat more prevalent in ppl with turner syndrom 5%
26
chr 15 imprinting genes and behavior
location on chr 15 lot of imprinted genes paternal bias in region results in happy puppet syndrome higher incidence of autism maternal bias - Prader willi syndrome and more risk psychosis
27
what is the link of autism and psychosis
opposite phenotypes of human cognitions disorders aut- oergrowth/social cog under dev psychosis-undergrowth and social cog over dev
28
what brain parts create the imbalanced adolescent brain
amyglada and nucleus acumbes (NAc) are one of the first areas to develop inv in emotion / reward later develops is the pre frontal cortex inv in rationale
29
what sex steroid inhibit the hpg axis in women and men
prog andT
30
where is Kisspeptin found in the brain
Arcuate nucleus | AVPV
31
how to Kp neurone in ARc respind to oestrogen
negative feedback | to terminal body of the GnRH neurone
32
how to Kp neurone in avpv respind to oestrogen
positve feedback | to cell body
33
what neuropeptides does AVPV GnRH neurone produce
kiss1 galanine tyrosine hydroxylase
34
what neuropeptides does ARc GnRH neurone produce
kiss neurokinin dynorphin
35
what changes occur around puberty ndicate KP imp
incr in kp neurones in hypo and projections to GnRH neurones incr in Kp tone incr in GPR54 signal efficieny incr in sensitivity to the stim effects of KP on GnRH resp
36
describe the HPG axis in rodents
juveile - an unkown factor activate varies to prod oest - negative feedback and triggers act of HPG act
37
describe the chnages to the hpg axis activity in humans
infancy Arc GnRH pulse robust, kp release in median eminence into portal circ - lh/fsh rel juvenile - neruological brake hold arc and gnrh pulse, decr kp rel into me and dec GnRH = hypogonatropic state pubertal - trigger when break removed and GnRH pulse gen w robust rel of KP in ME react
38
what are two suggested brakes of the HPG axis in primates
GABA - in rhesus moneky incr at low GnRH anddecr when high, GABA antagonist stim GnRH rel Neuropeptide y neurons in male monkeys, mrna lower in neonat then juv and decr at puberty
39
how is Kp shown not to be trigger
metabolic distress, ko saves the repr parametters but no improvment inmetabol related indexes
40
what suggests leptin ahs role
ko mice = delay puberty when lack of leptin kiss1 rec in ARc have leptin rec treatment with leptin partially rescues
41
what is the role of kp in preganancy
rises throughout preg, x7000 norm by end , fall to norm after delivery - placental source role in prganancy uncertain liekly link between the invasive trophoblast
42
roel of kp in lactation
lactation inh kp syst decr responsiveness ti kp by GnRH neurones inh hpg axis
43
role of hormones in avpv organisation
more kiss in avpv in women | incr t or oest in critical period after nirth masculinse the kiss1 expr
44
what chnages to hog result in hormonal senescence
decr sex steroids incr kiss1 in arc incr FSH AND LH alteration in the hormone conc levels decr in sex steroids signalling = firther decr in Gn
45
how do gonadal hormones influence the adolescent brain
sensitise the circuits = inf social bbehav /emotion incentic beahviour sexual mat/sem dim inf brain structure which effects social behav and emotion incentive behaviour also T slope inf anxiety/depr attention prob
46
descirbe the mating stucute of gorillas and relate to repr physiology
dom male with harrem mate once every couple years as long preg and lactation small testis as no sperm comp
47
descirbe the mating stucute of chimpanzees and relate to repr physiology
promiscuous | female have pronounced oestus swliing
48
descirbe the mating stucute of orangs and relate to repr physiology
solitary males and female soverlap territoires no overt oestrus sign as solitary
49
descirbe the mating stucute of bonobos and relate to repr physiology
highly promiscuous male inherit mums dom status female overt oestrus sweliing
50
descrbie the functio of the hyoid bone in the howler monkey
in males larger lot of variation in sp in size the more males in the grooup the smaller the hyoid the larger the testis trend smaller hyoid - deeper call- better intimidation get more mates - less need fo incr testis
51
what special about the mandril secondary sexual colouring
plastic when becoem/lose alpha status develops
52
what is special about the marsupial sex determination
have sry like mamals but also gene dosage imp one x - scrotum no puch mammary gland two x no scortum but puch mammary gland
53
what is snakes sex determination
zw but not hommo to birds
54
what sex determination in turtles
xx xy of much variety and tsd
55
what special abouttwo species of the spiny rat
``` neither have Y chr nor SRY gene cbx2 gene x2 in males cbx2 gene imp in repress ovarian dev in rodent/huuman sp split 2.5mya amami 24 autosomal chr tokunoshuma - 44 ```
56
what special about two species of mole rat sexual determination
no Y chr lost sry7 | maybe gene translocate to x more work needed
57
what has the red slider shown about tsd and oestrogen
``` male at low low temp and switch = female low temp and oest or arom= fem low temp and switch and arom inh - male oest core component that activates the female pattern of dev ```
58
what has the european pond turtle shown about temp and enzymes intsd
low temp - male mide temp intersex w ovotestis oest imp, treat w oest male temp - female gonad dev arom incr at female temp
59
what is the role of Sox9 in sex determination
in mammals expr when SRY gene expr lead to prod of sertolic cells in TSH female temp incr oest and armoatas down reg sox9 vice versa sox 9 act fgf9 w 1+ feedback fgf9 also inh wnt4 of female pathway but wnt4 act also inh sox9/fgf9 female no upreg of sox9 not enough fgf9 to repr wnt 4 =wnt 4 repr sox9/fgf9 = female dev
60
what is the leopard gecko and example of
tsd and effect on behaviour msle between 30-32.5 lower temp males smaller and less agr have less fem access
61
what the central bearded dragon a pot eg of
transition between tsd and gsd have zw syts but at high temp all zz female
62
what is the gene important in sex determination in birds
dmrt1 r doses encode male ko dmrt1 ZZ male develop ovaries w decr sox9 ko dmrt1 zw norm dev
63
what special about bird ovaries
only have L gonad R regresses
64
what does the medullary cord become in the sexes of birds
male - seminiferous cord | female - fragment and lacunae
65
what factor controls showy plummage in birds
genetics
66
what occurs to the Ra in zebrafinch through the year
breed season incr size | decr in non b season
67
what controls the sexual dimorphism of the Ra in zebraficnch
at birth exposure to oest - extension of neurones to Ra if castrtae dim still present - not circulating oest synth in male brain birds use locally synthesised oestrogen to differentiate the male brain - gonadal independent
68
what controls seasonal plummage in birds
``` in breeding season male have plummage oest blocks this showy plummage if ovarectomise females - showy plummage also in older female birs inject t no effect ```
69
what are gynadomorphs
male and femal in one bird show somatic sex determined by genetic not crculating hormones but can get beahviour as that induced y circulating hormones even have lateralised HVC support due to local neurosteroid prouction
70
what is the sex determination in the duckbilled platypus
male has 5 unpaird copies of 5 diff x like chr and 5 diff y like chr not homolog to eutherian closest to chicken z
71
what does the sex xhromosomes in the monotreme suggest
that xy of therian mammals recent w | in ladt 160my and not 310 my when the split from the bird was as previously thoought
72
what do monotremes have sort of subsitute of SRY gene
have sox3 autosomal | gene dsage suspected in the monotreme
73
what is sexual mimcry?
when one sex resemble the other
74
what sexual mimcry features does the hyena have
pseudo scrotum made from fused labia penile clitors and no distal vagina has no tunica unlike the male as have to be elastic
75
effect of hormones on sexual mimcry in hyena penile citoris
little effect of ovariestectomy at 4-7 month on length but decr elastcity in females aromatase inh in preg result in male penis more elastic and female clitoral hypospadias
76
what problem in mating and birth in hyena
mating req coop as female mate through peniform clit change occur at puberty of enlargin and retractor muscles developing 60cm length pup to travel um cord 12 cm anoxia common 60% tiem still born 9-18% mother die first born
77
hypothesis for the ev sexual mimcry
competition aggression male infanticide siblibide matrilineal
78
does the competition aggression hypo explain sexual mimcry in hyena
agr fem more dom better repr succes any mut selected for more agr mum more agr pup
79
do horomones expain sexual mimcry in hyenas
during preg experience androstenidone converted to T by enz mut in aromatase gene male and femla experience the same amount T block t in males - fem penis cant mate/brian dimorphic in females peninfrom forms modified morph thicker and more elastic beeter surv of young suggest an androgen independent formation although morpho modulateed
80
what evidence is there in hormones and agression in female hyenas
alpha female offspirng sons x2.5 more androgen and daugh x2.75 pups are more aggr when exposed to more andro masc genitalia as a by product of agr incr that facilitate fitness
81
what other animals show sexual mimcry
elephants - hypertrophied litoris resembles male penis but not canalised by uretha european moles -ovotestis ovaries in breeding season and testicular tissue dev in non b also have enlarged peniform clitoris peniform clit also in 4 sp of new world (but no ovotestis) spanish mole - ovotesits change due to T level flat lizard - young male art resemble female
82
summary hyena
maternal androgen and ffsprign behav fits link but block maternal androgen doesnt reverse otype suggest primary mech at play
83
what does the mullerian duct dev into
fallopian tube
84
what experiment showed the testis release something to stimulate wolfian duct
jost experiment transplant testis onto ovary wolfian duct stim , ovary rel something (T) also rel MIH , stop the mullerian duct dev triggers its degen
85
what sexual differentiation occurs in the early of mammals
``` SRY expr in germ cells sertoli cells differentiatedwk 7 s cells support germ cells and signal for leydig cell to rel T T rel from leydig cell, act sex diff sertoli cell fsh bind rel androgen bip leydig cell lh bind prod T ```
86
whats show the xx xy syst has x linked dosage mech
xo no follicle germ cell die
87
when is the early embryo got genital diff
week 9 (leydig cells act wk8)
88
what ptypoe of male castrate
no body hair small penis no androgen
89
what ptype of xxy
loe t small testis limited b dev and little body hair no w/m duct no sperm
90
what is the phenotype of xy disgenesis
``` X linked supr of sRY under dev fem appearance no tesits or ovaries (dev but shrink) uterus vag norm no secondary sexual char as no sex ster ```
91
what is the phenotype of testicular feminisation
``` no AR big breat no uterues vagina short and blind end no testis descenf although intact aromatase no masc behaviour (not as imp in himans?) live as females ```
92
what are guevedoces deficient in
5 a reductase no DHT in dev at puberty T rise enough for testis to descend
93
what can the effect of pregnant women androgen
virilised baby | congenital adrenal hyperpllasis genetic females can have oheotyp of between male and female
94
what problem can luteoma cause in preganancy
secrete androgens cause virilisation
95
what experiments showed that there was some sexual brain differentiation
ovary transplant onto eye capsule rat - only fem ovulate | 60s piuitary transplatn = no sex diff (suggest thhe diff in hypo
96
describe the lordosis experiment sthat show brain differentiation
ovarientomy - no lordosis ovariectomy then mimic hormone - lordosis (pried by hormonal history) repeat in male - no effect (sexes brain diff) expsoe guinea fem to T pren natal then repeat hormone reg = no lordosis early androgens permenantyl alter brian
97
what ev there that androgen not organise the brain
oest more ptent than testo in male brain inject oest same effect as inject T radiolabel T end up as radiolabel O
98
what the role of alpha fetal protein
protect fetus from mat oestrogen binds to oest and cant move through placenta barrier - prevents entering the brain and masc males T bypass this system KO AFP males no effect female - defem inject oest can swamp system and artificial can pypass
99
what differnces of SDN POA in the sexes and what causes
``` in rats males bigger same number of cells derived but female reduce by apoptosis inject oest into female wont occur, sensitive d3-d10 post natal after this little effect ```
100
what differnces of MePD in the sexes and what causes
in rats bigger in males medial amyglada responsive to T throughout life castrtate decr to fem size in 30 days x1.5 in males
101
what differnces of AVPV in the sexes and what causes
bigger in females T induced apoptosis in males T cause AVPV neurone to rel chemoattractant that establish teh sex dimorphic innervation pattern mice over expr bcl2 anti apoptopic gen decr sex dim in Mepd and AVPV
102
what differnces of HVA AND RAin the sexes and what causes
songbirds bigger in males canaires treat wiht T incr size zebra finch RA bigger in breed season oesst expusre makes the neurones reach RA castrate - no effect (not circ hormones) treat female hatchling with oest and T masculine the HVC and RA and induce singing is T induced behaviour but local neuorsteroid production brain parts dev
103
what anatomical brain diff in the sexes in humans
splenium part of caudal corpus callosum more bulbous in fem
104
what the diff in SNB in sexes and what role
spinal nucleus of bulbocavernous present in both male and female at birth T cause neuroe dev and prevent apoptosis in males T induce muscles to produce a trophic factor (ciliary neurotrophic factor, CNTF) that preseves muscle nd motor neuron T spare sSNB secondarilt to prevent apop of he target muscle no CNTF in male still SNB/ no CNTF rec a subunit no SNB / another factor bind to retain SNB
105
what are the three zone of the hypothalmus
lateral medial periventricular
106
where are the neurosecretory cells in the hypo
PV
107
what is the hypothalami portal system
connect the hypo and a.pit imp for hormone has fenestrated cap hypothesal portal vein connects
108
what role of the posterior piuitary
collection of axonal projection secrete oxytocin and vasopressin only store hormone no production
109
describe ovotestis
bipolar gonads with features of ovaries and testis testis like region with interstitial tissue and interspersed medullary cords (OIG) ovarian follicle and OIG At different regions/poles
110
what hapeens to ovotestis in eurpoean mole and what controls this
vary seasonally in size and endocrine activity follicular enlarges at secual maturity and at breeding seasons while interstitial regress reverse at end T most from OIG rises outside breed season phallic length larger in females
111
describe the morphology of the North American moles
Broad and Coast moles norm and have peniform clitoris the phallic length of the broad foot doesnt differ much from males starnosed - phallic and bipolar ovaries similar shrew mole intermediate of bipolar and normal and phallic length
112
evidence that genitalia of european mole androgen dependent
phallic length males larger than females | treat preg female with T, difference disappper (Godet, 1946
113
what androgen exposure in utero in hyenas
androstenidone from maternal ovary is converted to oest and T by plac and transferred to dev fetus
114
what important about observation of penile clitoris formin in hyena at D36
prior to differentiation of the ovaries (what mech therefore drives)
115
what the effect of removal of external genitalia (ovarectomy / castration) in hyenas
reduces T to v v low reduces androsteniode to 90% removal of had little effect on morphology (lenght or number of spines) non- andro at work?
116
what the effect of pre-natal anti androgens in hyena?
male - feminised penis (shorter/thicker/diameter and elasticity of the urethal meatus incr) - alll more sim to the female Female- clitoris broader and shorter urogenital meatus more elastic/ clitoris broader and shorter/ urogenital meatus more elastic
117
what evidence is there that the creation of the penile citoris in hyena is androgen independent
appear before differnetiation of ovary survive in utero anti androgen treatment it morpho is unlike androgenised penis
118
what evidence is there that the sex differences male and female genitalia in hyena is dependent on secretions from fetal testis
pathways for androgen synth appear in fetal testis before fetal ovaries and conincides with penis dev anti androgen in utero treatment feminises the penis
119
evidence that the femal penile clitoris of hyenas is androgenised in utero
anti androgen treatment in utero feminises the penis more (incr size and elasticity of urogenital meatus and decr length)

hormones and beahaviour (1 decks)

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