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Question

CASE STUDY – Haiti– | Earthquakes

Answer 1

HATI- Location: In the Caribbean What happened: On January 12th 2010 a magnitude 7 earthquake (4:53pm) ``` Occurred due to a conservative plate boundary with the American and Caribbean plate Primary effects: - Shaking of the ground - Landslides - Collapsed building - Gas and water lines burst - Cracks in roads and sidewalks ``` Secondary effects: - Aftershocks - Fires - Diseases from water contamination - Blocked roads - Dam disturbances - Floods - Soil liquefaction Effects: - Destroyed 106,000 homes - Destroyed main airports and ports - Countries cancelled any debts owed to them by Haiti - Average loss of 15% gdp over 2010-2015 - Oil spills

Answer 2

Location: Matchu: Picchu is located in Peru Background information: - Matchu picchu is a settlement built in the 15th century - 900,000 tourists visit the Inca trail annually What happened: On the 23rd of January 2010 up to 40 landslides occurred due to rain. Cutting the city of Cuzco off from the railway. Causes: - High precipitation 67% higher than normal - Constant trekking (2,500 a day, half a million a year) erodes the trail Effects: - Many homes destroyed - 2,500 tourists were stranded because several cuts to the Inca trail occurred - Main railway line from the city to the trails was also destroyed - Food, water and gas shortages after being stuck for 48 hours - The historical site was partly damaged - Hurt the tourism and agriculture industry in future months Response: - 10 helicopters were sent to rescue people - 120 tourists were evacuated per hour - Community gave their supplies to trapped tourists - Evacuation took a week due to constant downpour - Authorities took oldest and youngest first - Some hotels like El Inka dropped prices when tourists ran out of money while others raised their prices up to $50 a night - Many left to eat from communal pots and sleep outdoors - Individuals stuck helped to clear the tracks in time Possible solutions: - Maintain as much vegetation on the slopes as possible - Install physical structures (piles and retaining walls) - Modify slope geometry - Warning systems - Diverting debris pathways - Use chemical agents to reinforce slope material

Answer 3

Situation (Causes and Impacts) • Ice Stupas are melting at an unprecedented rate due to temperature changes as a result of climate change. • Glaciers are the only water-source for the communities in Ladakh, as they melt, other water sources must be found or created to sustain the villages. • Melting glaciers are breaking the banks of streams which is also causing flooding. • The less access to water from glaciers meaning that agricultural practices will also suffer which results in less food for the communities. How have local communities participated? (Managing the situation) • Inhabitants of the Hindu Kush and Karakoram ranges have practiced “glacier grafting”, chipping away at existing ice and pooling the pieces at higher altitudes, hoping to create new glaciers that can supply streams throughout the growing season. Chewang Norphel earned the nickname the “iceman of Ladakh” by using a network of pipes to divert meltwater into artificial lakes on shaded sides of the mountain. The water would freeze at night, creating glaciers that grew each day as new water flowed into the basin. Norphel created 11 reservoirs that supplied water to 10,000 people. Is the management sustainable? “The ice needed to be shaded – but how?” he says. “We couldn’t have it under a bridge, or use reflectors, which aren’t practical at scale. So we thought of this conical shape: making ice shade itself.” Does the management of water provide access to safe, clean and affordable water? The water management does provide access to safe, clean and affordable water, however as temperatures continue to rise, the abundance of water at this source will decrease, placing the communities at risk to a water shortage. How does this situation link to the food-water-energy nexus? The lack of water is impacting the crop yield and therefore, the production of food in the villages.

Answer 4

Aswan Dam, a megadam of the River Nile Was constructed in the 1960s and is the largest in the world based in Egypt Advantages of the dam: ``` ⎫ Flood and drought control: allow good crops in dry years ⎫ Irrigation ⎫ Hydroelectric power ⎫ Improved navigation ⎫ Recreation and tourism ``` Estimated value of the dam in the Egyptian economy is $500 million Disadvantages of the dam: o Water losses: dam provides less than half the water expected o Salinization: crop yields reduced due to irrigated water (1/3rd) o Displacement of population: 100,000 people o Seismic stress: An earthquake of November 1981 due to the dam o Deposition within the lake o Channel erosion o Erosion of the Nile delta o Loss of nutrients o Decrease fish catches

Answer 5

Day zero was brought on by three consecutive years of very poor rainfall (2015-2018) and the largest drought recorded in history that occurred on April 12th 2018. -Water levels in the City's dams declined from 71.9 percent in 2014 to 50.1 percent in 2015. Causes of a drought: - High temperatures (low humidity, high evaporation) - Human activities (agriculture) - Low levels of precipitation Effects of drought: - Increase wildfire risks - Increased imports - Decreasing agriculture production - 30,000 jobs will be lost - Increase in food prices - Less and limited food options - Less water available - Day zero created - Industry’s (food, wood, water) all suffer decreasing capita per person - Decrease transportation (ships) - Loss of life - Increase health problems - Water levels in the City's dams declined from 71.9 percent in 2014 to 50.1 percent in 2015. - Drop in tourism Solution: - Day Zero - Recycle water - Crop engineering This is when dam levels fall to 13.5 percent capacity, meaning that the taps must be turned off, forcing 4 million residents to instead queue for water. Cape Town’s population has been living on 50 liters of water a day, a limit that can be maintained by flushing the toilet just once daily and limiting showers to 10 liters. Plugs have been removed from rooms of luxury hotels to prevent guests from taking baths. Staggered tariffs on water consumption have also been imposed. Households that exceed the limit face hefty fines, or having a meter installed in their home that shuts off their water once they go over. Is the management sustainable? Yes, to a certain extend. Water can be preserved for a certain period of time by reducing individual’s intake Does the management of water provide access to safe, clean and affordable water? Day zero does not provide water but rather preserves it so ensure that citizens do not run out. How does this situation link to the food-water-energy nexus? Due to a decrease in the volume of water that is available is directly affects both energy and food production, decreasing them both significantly. Animals need water to survive and reproduce thus the amount of animals will decrease with the amount of water.

Answer 6

China’s South-North water diversion project: What is it: The Chinese government is building a $62 billion South-North water transfer project. The project would divert 44.8 billion cubic meters of water per year from from a river in the south to a river in the north. It consists of 2,400 km of canals and tunnels. Effects - 35,000 people relocated due to the building of the reservoirs and canals - Some people say this has exaggerated the poverty in the south in Hebei - Water- hungry and polluting industries has to close - Some farmers changed to less water intensive rice farming = less profit - 25,000 out of 50,000 rivers have dried up, 70% of remaining ones are polluted Biggest problems created: In 2008 June Beijing’s reservoirs were down to a 10th of their capacity. 2/3rds of their water is drawn from underground water tables which is dropping a meter a year What has been done: - Beijing has been trying to reduce demand by increasing tariffs - Beijing’s industries are now recycling 15% of their water consumption with 85% in developing countries

Answer 7

Located: On the Blue river Nile Ethiopia started construction on Africa’s largest dam “Grand Ethiopian renaissance dam”. Purpose: - Generate 6,000 megawatts of electricity (double its current output) - The reservoir behind the dam will be able to hold more water than the Blue Nile itself - Ethiopia insists its use is for energy and that the turbines will push the water downstream. Egypt is scared it will be used for irrigation reducing flow downstream. ``` Stakeholders ♣ Sudan ♣ Egypt ♣ Ethiopia ♣ United nations ``` The effect on Egypt: This opportunity for Ethiopia could be a disaster for Egypt. - The Nile produces nearly all of Egypt’s water. - Egypt claims two thirds of the water based on an agreement signed with Sudan in 1959 - However, this is not enough now to satisfy the growing population and agriculture sector - Annual water supply has fallen more than half per person. New agreements In March 2015 Sudan, Egypt and Ethiopia all signed a declaration that approved construction of the dam as long as there is no “significant harm” to downstream countries. - Two French commissioned to study the dams potential problems. Some Egyptians believe that Ethiopia is stalling so that the dam is a fait accompli, already half-finished experts say it is too late to fix problems fait accompli - a thing that has already happened or been decided before those affected hear about it, leaving them with no option but to accept it. Problems - If the reservoir is filled too quickly will reduce significantly reduce downstream flow and and affect the electricity generating capacity of the Aswan Dam. - Ethiopian government faces pressure to see a quick return - The project costs $ 4.8 billion to build. - Some experts say that filling the reservoir could take 7 years Sudan’s side Majority of the time Sudan sided with Egypt as the dam is 20 km from its border but recently sided with Ethiopia due to the advantages they receive. - Will receive some of the power produced by the dam. - Stabilizing flow reduces flooding in Sudan, they can consume more water, increasing agriculture output Future plans: To build more dams

Answer 8

Location: Located in the South of the USA Flooded in 1993 Facts: - The river basin is the 5th largest in the world - Second largest in the North America continent - Runs through 10 states - Drains 1/3 of USA - Contains USAs most important agriculture region How the river was controlled: - Stone and earth levees to raise the banks - Holding dams to hold back water in times of floods - Lateral dykes to divert water away - Straightening the channel to remove water speedily - $10 billion has been spent with an annual payment of $2 million Physical and human causes of the flood: - Heavy rain April = July - 400-750 % above the monthly average precipitation - Heavy snowfall in the previous year - Levees are poorly built - Development of urban areas along the river - Channelization of river (St louis) causes problems down stream - Thunderstorm and cold are travelled from Flood effects: - 43 people died - 72,000 homes destroyed - 62,000 families evacuated - 70% of levees damaged - stagnant water increases disease risk - Two towns wrecked (Valmeyer / Rhineland) relocated to higher ground - 25,000 km of land was flooded Responses: - Afforestation - Dams and reservoirs built - Levees - Flood warnings along the river The river was preforming its natural functions, humans had modified the channel so that it did not perform its natural function so people thought they were safe from the effects of flooding. If the river was left natural a new channel would have been created in 1970 but protections prevented this. Flood relief measures include: - Atchafalaya river which carried 25% of the rivers flow. -

Answer 9

Location: Southern Florida ,USA What has happened? Since the 1800s, human actions have been altering the Everglades landscape. Water diversions and flood control projects have cut water flows and connections between wetlands throughout the everglades. Combined with agricultural and urban development, the sixe if the Everglades has decreased dramatically. Purpose of the Everglades: Provides drinking water for more than 8 million people Protects communities from hurricanes and floods : act like a sponge and soak up water Supports Florida’s $1.2 billion fishing industry Generates $150 millions of direct spending annually just in Everglades National Park Store carbon: soak up carbon from the atmosphere which helps to regulate climate change Filter water: they clean and filter water Support diverse wildlife: Provide homes for many plant and animal species Consequence of wetland drainage Less filtration – increased flooding Increased erosion Destruction of habitat Less purification of water – increased levels of pollution Less replenishing of water Occurrence of invasive species – ie. wild boar, hog and wild horses Competition for resources: - Invasive exotic species are now dominating in the habitats that were once home to indigenous plant and animal species. species was originally introduced into Florida as pets, food sources, ornamentals, biological controls. A forging fish was introduced into the everglades originally as a pet being released. - Agriculture runoff causes algal blooms and poisons drinking water and natural habitats from lake Okeechobee. - Half the original wetlands are gone due to 2,253 kilometers of canals and levees within the everglades region used for water control and diversion off agriculture land into lake Okeechobee - -Urban storm water regularly causes flooding as the natural barrier is gone. More water diversion is no necessary that will further destroy the wetland environment. Problems being caused The water in Lake Okeechobee has been contaminated with nitrogen and phosphorus that it is considered too polluted to send directly south to the everglades like it used to, instead now all the polluted water is held in lake Okeechobee. The water is too polluted that is now has to be dumped into the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. This not only wastes drinking water, damages costal habitats, kills wildlife and contributes to toxic red tide which endangers individuals. This causes the everglades to become desperate for water meaning grasses could become dry. How are wetlands being protected The Everglades region is under a plan called the "Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP). This plans to restore and preserve the Everglades in Southern Florida while also managing water supplies and controlling floods… Referred to as the "World's largest ecosystem restoration effort" the CERP will cost over $7 billion and take more than 20 years to develop. To protect the Everglades from further degradation caused by phosphorus: • Farmers have implemented best management practices to reduce phosphorus entering before the water leaves the farm. • The State and Federal governments have constructed about 57,000 acres of treatment wetlands (called storm water treatment areas/STA’s) that remove phosphorus before the water is discharged into the Everglades. This was a $1 billion effort to treat large volumes of water down a lower phosphorus level. • The STA’s have permits that are needed under the Clean Water Act that limit how much phosphorus can be discharged. Causes of Wetland degradation * Rapid population growth: The demand for land increases as more housing must be built, and more land is needed for agriculture/ food production – so wetlands are artificially drained to make space for this. *   Increased demand of recourses: Rapid population growth leads to an increased demand for water for domestic used as well as increased water for agriculture. This means wetlands are drained to be used as a source of water •   Urbanisation: Building of roads, houses and infrastructure requires wetlands to be destroyed, pollution, disturbance if wildlife and changes rivers flow and channels   • Rising sea levels: Global warming has lead to rising sea levels meaning that wetlands are flooding more often and are being damaged.   • Invasive species: The introduction of non-indigenous species disrupts food chains and webs, therefore the ecosystem Summary – Wetlands in Florida are being destroyed due too much water being pumped out and their resources being exploited. This is a problem as the everglades are very important as they provide many purposes.

Answer 10

Location: Mississippi is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Bordered by Tennessee. Facts: Flooded in 1993 The river flows through 10 states River basin is the 5th largest in the world. Is the Largest river basin in the North American continent Physical + human causes of the flood: - 400 – 750 % above the monthly average precipitation - Heavy snowfall in previous winter - Levees are poorly built - Development of urban areas along the river - Channelization of river St Louis causes problems downstream Flood effects: - 43 people died - 72,000 homes flooded - 62,000 families evacuated - 70% of levees damaged - Two towns wrecked ( Valmeyer + Rhineland) - 25,000 km flooded Responses: - Stone and earthen levees to raise the banks of the river - Holding dams to hold back water in time of flood - Lateral dykes to divert water away from the river - Straightening the channel to remove water speedily - Afforestation - Flood warning along the river - Valmever + Rhineland were relocated to higher ground

Answer 11

Location: Cape town, South Africa Situation: 3 years of drought (2015-2018) leading to three months away from running out of water meant that in January 2018 “Day Zero” was implemented. April 12th 2018 was the largest ever recorded drought. Water levels in the City's dams declined from 71.9 percent in 2014 to 50.1 percent in 2015. Causes of a drought: - High temperatures (low humidity, high evaporation) - Human activities (agriculture) - Low levels of precipitation Effects of drought: - Increase wildfire risks - Increase in food prices - Less and limited food options - Less water available - Day zero created - Industry’s (food, wood, water) all suffer decreasing capita per person - Decrease transportation (ships) - Loss of life - Increase health problems - Tourism -The accommodation sector reported a decline in occupancy of 10%. - Agriculture - Agriculture water cut of 60% from 2017-1018 = smaller yield and an economic loss of $400million US dollars,13-20% drop in exports - -Economic - 37,000 jobs lost,50,000 people being pushed below the poverty line due to job losses, inflation and increases in the price of food How have local communities participated? (Managing the situation) The city attempted to urge residents to consume less than 50 litres of water a day and later on to 25 litres a day, as well as collect and reuse the showering and hand washing water to flush toilets and water plants. Changes in tourism – in the city of 4 million, more than 1.5 million tourists are welcomed per year. Restaurants and hotels asked tourists and visitors to do their part to conserve. For example, at the One & Only Cape Town hotel, the staff removed bath plugs and started using filtered water in the pool, as well as installing water-saving shower heads. Some sports facilities have installed buzzers to alert people in public if they linger for longer than 2 minutes. Cape Town’s government increased the water tariffs and also enforced prohibition of over usage, as well as eliminating water usage for swimming pools, and lawn.   Is this management sustainable? The attempt to consume less than 50 litres of water did not have an effect as only 41% of residents are using 87 litres a day.     Does the management of water provide access to safe, clean and affordable water? Theses local solutions to manage water sustainability have all been attempts to reduce the amount of water consumed by the residents. The methods have not necessarily allowed residents to have access to safe and clean water. However, these short-term attempts to prevent and reduce the water consumption to ultimately limit the effects of the situation have been helpful on a local scale. Solution: - Day Zero - Recycle water - Crop engineering

Answer 12

Location: Both lakes are found in North America, bordered by Ontario, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan. Their boundaries meet in the middle of the lake. Holds 20% of the worlds fresh water. Causes: • Runoff pollution - This type of pollution occurs when rainfall washes fertilizer and manure spread on large farm fields into streams that flow into Lake Erie (89% responsible) • Sewage integration into lakes Effects: • Step 6: Fish And Other Aquatic Life Forms Die. • Step 3: Algal Blooms Occur. • Step 1: Excessive Nutrients Enter Waterways. • Step 2: Nutrients Help Develop Plant Growth. ... • Step 4: Algae Dies And Is Decomposed By Bacteria. ... • Step 5: Decomposition Of Algae Increases Biological Oxygen Demand. • 11 million people depend on the lake • In 2014 it left 400,00 people without drinking water for three days • 620 square miles of the lake were coated. Solutions: • Reduce fertilizer use • Reduce sewage runoff

Answer 13

Location: Australia What is it: It is the largest and deepest basin in the world. The basin provides the only source of fresh water through much of inland Australia. The Basin underlies 22% of the continent. ``` Problems • Pollution: - Agriculture - Industry - Landfill sites - Domestic - Sewerage - Natural   Solutions – management • Desalination: Removing salt from sea water and making it potable. ✓ Provides many job opportunities ✗ Requires a lot of energy ✗ Is very expensive to run ``` * Trade in Virtual water: Embedded water – water within products that are sold ie. cotton shirts (20 000 liters of water) or citrus fruits which require a lot of water to grow/ produce * Reduce leakages of pipes and irrigation channels: Overall allows for greater efficiency and reduce wastage of water * Recycle greywater: Reusing water that was used for washing vegetables to water plants * Drip irrigation: A method of irrigation that drips water specifically onto each plant, allowing for the greatest efficiency in irrigation. * Water metering: A method to measure the amount of water used and charging the owner accordingly. To incentivize people to recue water consumption Summary: Uncontrolled flow from bores and open earth bore drains in the GAB threatens the health of important groundwater and the volume of water is decreasing.

Answer 14

Location: Hubei province, China What is it: It is the world’s largest hydroelectricity dam What are it’s purposes? 1) Power generation - There are several generators within the dam which use the potential energy stored in the water, to generate electricity. This is sold to many provinces around China. It is renewable energy. Chinas generation comes from coal (uses 40% of the world total) these less use of coal will reduce air pollution and risk of peoples health. 2) Flooding prevention - One of the main reasons that the Three Gorges dam was built was to prevent flooding further downstream. The need for a dam was highlighted in 1954 when people were killed as a result of flooding of the Yangtze River. Over a hundred thousand people were relocated to enable construction of the dam. This was viewed by many as an inconvenience. However, this dam is actually preserving many more people’s lives by reducing the risk of flooding. 3) Tourism - The Dam isn’t just designed to save lives and generate electricity, but it is also a very popular tourist attraction. As it is the world’s largest hydroelectric dam it attracts thousands of tourists every year. In addition tourism can now occur on the cruise ships passing through. 4) Cruise ship navigation – Easier for larger ships to navigate through as before the river flowed too fast, was too low, exposing rocks in the dry season. The new infrastructure will allow vessels up to 10,000 tones to pass through. 5) Seasons – influenced by the lake, the winter climate should become milder, wetter, increasing the length of the growing season. 6) Living standards – The many new settlements that have been created will have better housing with electricity and in time sewage, transport links and services Negative impacts? Environmental impacts - The dam has been designed to impact the environment as little as possible. It has meant that some ancient artifacts were lost, or are no longer accessible. However, it is stated that the impact on the environment is very small. The dam has also been designed using modern materials and techniques to reduce the risk of it being compromised during an earthquake or other natural disaster. Costs - US$31.765 billion, really expensive, far larger than the original budget. Displacement -Over a hundred thousand people were relocated to enable construction Water pollution / erosion - Along with the river flowing, there is a large number of land experiencing erosion, which leads to tons of sands and pebbles into the Yangtze River and stay at the upstream and makes great water pollution about Yangtze River. Migration – Relocation of 1.3 million people whose homes will be flooded by the construction of the dam. Although each family is given compensation is is not enough compared to what they lose. Animal welfare – Endangered species such as the river dolphin and Yangtze sturgron have become extinct. Durability – Concern that the dam could break due either to the sheer weight of water, to earthquakes, bad construction or terrorist activity. Aesthetic - Sewage and rubbish are all allowed to flow in the river until treatment sites are built thus rubbish will be stuck behind the dam, meaning diseases. Toxic waste – Factories that risk being flooded will release toxic waste

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