All Key Terms Flashcards

Question

What does the British Crime Survey measure?

Answer 1

The extent and nature of crime in England and Wales. ## Footnote It provides valuable data for understanding crime trends and victimization.

Answer 2

A longitudinal study examining the development of offending behavior in a cohort of boys. ## Footnote It has contributed significantly to understanding juvenile delinquency.

Answer 3

The speed or swiftness with which legal processes occur. ## Footnote Celerity can impact the effectiveness of the justice system.

Answer 4

The level of confidence that a legal decision or outcome will occur. ## Footnote Higher certainty can deter criminal behavior.

Answer 5

Change Order

Answer 6

Change Perspective

Answer 7

A plan designed to protect a child who is at risk of harm. ## Footnote These plans are often developed in collaboration with multiple agencies.

Answer 8

Any sexual activity with a child that is intended to gratify the abuser. ## Footnote CSA can have long-lasting psychological effects on victims.

Answer 9

Legal disputes between individuals or organizations typically involving compensation. ## Footnote Civil cases do not involve criminal charges.

Answer 10

A confession obtained under pressure or coercion, where the individual complies to escape a stressful situation. ## Footnote This type of confession may not reflect the truth.

Answer 11

A confession where the individual comes to believe they committed the crime due to coercive interrogation tactics. ## Footnote This can occur even when the person did not commit the crime.

Answer 12

A theory that emphasizes the interaction between cognitive and emotional factors in personality. ## Footnote CAPS suggests that behavior is influenced by situational contexts and personal dispositions.

Answer 13

A psychotherapy that combines cognitive and analytic approaches to understand and change patterns of thinking and behavior. ## Footnote CAT often focuses on the therapeutic relationship.

Answer 14

An evaluation of an individual's cognitive abilities and processes. ## Footnote Cognitive assessments can help diagnose learning disabilities and other conditions.

Answer 15

A type of psychotherapy that focuses on changing unhelpful cognitive distortions and behaviors. ## Footnote CBT is widely used to treat various mental health conditions.

Answer 16

A treatment for PTSD that helps individuals process and reframe traumatic memories. ## Footnote It is based on cognitive theories of trauma.

Answer 17

Programs designed to enhance cognitive skills such as problem-solving, decision-making, and critical thinking. ## Footnote These training sessions can be beneficial in various contexts, including rehabilitation.

Answer 18

The dedication to a particular course of action or belief. ## Footnote Commitment can influence behavior change and adherence to treatment.

Answer 19

A theoretical framework that reflects how ordinary people perceive justice and fairness in legal processes. ## Footnote This model contrasts with formal legal principles.

Answer 20

The occurrence of two or more disorders or illnesses in the same individual. ## Footnote Comorbidity can complicate diagnosis and treatment.

Answer 21

A therapeutic approach that integrates cognitive-behavioral techniques with concepts of compassion. ## Footnote CFT aims to help individuals develop self-compassion and reduce shame.

Answer 22

To detect knowledge of concealed information, often used in criminal investigations. ## Footnote CIT measures physiological responses to relevant stimuli.

Answer 23

A mental health disorder typically diagnosed in childhood or adolescence characterized by a persistent pattern of behavior that violates societal norms. ## Footnote CD can lead to more serious antisocial behavior in adulthood.

Answer 24

The tendency to change one's beliefs or behaviors to align with those of a group. ## Footnote This phenomenon can impact decision-making in various contexts.

Answer 25

The act of presenting opposing parties to each other, often during cross-examination. ## Footnote Confrontation rights are a key aspect of due process.

Answer 26

A theory suggesting that memories are reconstructed rather than simply retrieved. ## Footnote This model highlights the malleability of human memory.

Answer 27

A technique used in memory retrieval where individuals are encouraged to recreate the physical and emotional context of an event. ## Footnote This approach can enhance recall accuracy.

Answer 28

Actions taken to manage or regulate one's emotions or behavior in response to stressors. ## Footnote Control behaviors can be adaptive or maladaptive depending on the context.

Answer 29

A polygraph technique that compares responses to relevant questions with responses to control questions. ## Footnote The CQT aims to detect deception based on physiological responses.

Answer 30

Techniques used to guide and control the flow of conversation during interviews. ## Footnote CM is particularly relevant in investigative interviewing.

Answer 31

Evidence that confirms or supports a statement or theory. ## Footnote In legal contexts, corroboration can strengthen a case.

Answer 32

A behavioral therapy technique that involves pairing unwanted behaviors with unpleasant stimuli. ## Footnote It aims to reduce the occurrence of maladaptive behaviors.

Answer 33

The process of connecting different crimes based on similarities in modus operandi or victimology. ## Footnote Crime linkage can help investigators identify serial offenders.

Answer 34

To analyze and connect various crimes to facilitate investigations. ## Footnote Practitioners often use behavioral analysis techniques.

Answer 35

An individual who has committed a crime. ## Footnote The term can apply to those convicted or suspected of criminal behavior.

Answer 36

Legal proceedings against individuals accused of committing crimes. ## Footnote These cases are prosecuted by the state.

Answer 37

Factors that increase the likelihood of reoffending. ## Footnote Addressing these needs is crucial in rehabilitation efforts.

Answer 38

A method for evaluating the credibility of statements by analyzing their content and structure. ## Footnote CBCA is often used in forensic psychology.

Answer 39

The questioning of a witness by the opposing party during a trial. ## Footnote Cross-examination aims to challenge the credibility of the witness's testimony.

Answer 40

A type of court in England and Wales that deals with serious criminal cases. ## Footnote Crown Courts have the authority to impose severe penalties.

Answer 41

A technique used to elicit detailed descriptions of a suspect from witnesses. ## Footnote This strategy can enhance the quality of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 42

The sensitivity of a participant in distinguishing between signal and noise in a detection task. ## Footnote d' is used in signal detection theory.

Answer 43

A standard used to determine the admissibility of expert witnesses' testimony in court. ## Footnote It assesses the relevance and reliability of the evidence presented.

Answer 44

In practice or effect, but not formally recognized. ## Footnote This term is often used in legal contexts to describe situations that exist in reality.

Answer 45

A predetermined value assigned to a variable when no alternative value is specified. ## Footnote Default values are commonly used in data entry and programming.

Answer 46

To present arguments and evidence to refute the prosecution's case against a defendant. ## Footnote The defense aims to establish reasonable doubt about the defendant's guilt.

Answer 47

By law; something that is legally recognized. ## Footnote This term is often used to contrast with de facto situations.

Answer 48

The cessation of offending behavior over time. ## Footnote Understanding desistance is crucial for developing effective rehabilitation strategies.

Answer 49

The prevention of criminal acts by instilling fear of punishment. ## Footnote Deterrence theory posits that potential offenders will avoid crime if the consequences are severe.

Answer 50

A theory that suggests individuals will refrain from criminal behavior if the costs outweigh the benefits. ## Footnote This theory underpins many aspects of criminal justice policy.

Answer 51

A theory that explains the emergence of antisocial behavior based on individual differences and environmental influences. ## Footnote It emphasizes the interaction between biological and social factors.

Answer 52

A measure of the effectiveness of a test in distinguishing between true positives and false positives. ## Footnote It indicates the reliability of evidence in diagnostic assessments.

Answer 53

A type of cognitive-behavioral therapy that emphasizes balancing acceptance and change. ## Footnote DBT is often used to treat borderline personality disorder.

Answer 54

A therapeutic technique used to help individuals explore and understand their sexual responses. ## Footnote It can be part of sex therapy programs.

Answer 55

A technique where the interviewer guides the witness's responses during an interview. ## Footnote This method can influence the accuracy of the information provided.

Answer 56

A psychological defense mechanism where a person disconnects from their thoughts, feelings, or sense of identity. ## Footnote Dissociation can occur in response to trauma.

Answer 57

Twins that develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm. ## Footnote DZ twins are genetically similar to siblings, sharing about 50% of their DNA.

Answer 58

The process of identifying a defendant in court by a witness. ## Footnote This method can be crucial for eyewitness testimony.

Answer 59

An imbalance in the systems that manage emotional responses and stress reactions. ## Footnote This dysregulation can contribute to various mental health issues.

Answer 60

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-world settings. ## Footnote High ecological validity means that results from studies reflect actual behavior in everyday life.

Answer 61

The magnitude of a relationship or difference in statistical terms. ## Footnote Effect size helps to understand the practical significance of research findings.

Answer 62

A type of crime that can be tried in either a magistrates' court or a crown court. ## Footnote Examples include theft and assault.

Answer 63

A theory that explains how attitudes are formed and changed through two routes: central and peripheral. ## Footnote This model is often applied in understanding persuasion.

Answer 64

The electrical activity of the brain. ## Footnote EEGs are used in both clinical and research settings to study brain function.

Answer 65

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory. ## Footnote Effective encoding is crucial for later retrieval of information.

Answer 66

A type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of specific events, experiences, or episodes. ## Footnote Episodic memories are often linked to personal experiences.

Answer 67

Factors that can affect the reliability of eyewitness testimony but are not controlled by the legal system. ## Footnote Examples include lighting conditions and the witness's state of mind.

Answer 68

A Basque nationalist and separatist organization in Spain known for its use of violence. ## Footnote ETA sought independence for the Basque Country.

Answer 69

Information presented in court to support or refute a claim. ## Footnote Evidence can be physical, testimonial, or documentary.

Answer 70

A decision-making process that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient values. ## Footnote Evidence-based practice is crucial in fields such as healthcare and criminal justice.

Answer 71

The initial questioning of a witness by the party that called them to testify. ## Footnote This phase aims to establish the witness's account before cross-examination.

Answer 72

Cognitive processes that include working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control. ## Footnote Executive functioning is essential for planning and decision-making.

Answer 73

Testimony provided by an expert witness with specialized knowledge relevant to the case. ## Footnote Expert evidence can help clarify complex issues for the court.

Answer 74

Individuals with specialized knowledge who provide testimony in legal cases. ## Footnote Their expertise helps the court understand technical matters.

Answer 75

A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recollection of information. ## Footnote Explicit memory can be further divided into episodic and semantic memory.

Answer 76

Actions or behaviors that are directed outward, such as aggression or defiance. ## Footnote These behaviors are often observed in children with behavioral disorders.

Answer 77

A psychotherapy technique used to alleviate distress associated with traumatic memories. ## Footnote EMDR involves guided eye movements to help process trauma.

Answer 78

A method of legal reasoning that prioritizes objective facts over personal beliefs or interpretations. ## Footnote This approach aims for impartiality in legal judgments.

Answer 79

An admission of guilt for a crime that the confessor did not commit. ## Footnote False confessions can result from coercive interrogation techniques.

Answer 80

Trauma that affects family dynamics and relationships across generations. ## Footnote Familial trauma can have lasting effects on mental health and behavior.

Answer 81

The process of becoming acquainted with the details of a case or the courtroom environment. ## Footnote Familiarisation can help witnesses feel more comfortable during testimony.

Answer 82

The recognition of previously encountered information or experiences. ## Footnote Familiarity can influence eyewitness identification.

Answer 83

The emotional connection and attachment between family members. ## Footnote Strong family bonds can provide support and resilience during difficult times.

Answer 84

A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during fetal development, leading to physical and cognitive impairments. ## Footnote FAS can have lifelong effects on an individual's health and functioning.

Answer 85

Individuals included in a lineup who are not suspects but are used to test a witness's ability to identify the perpetrator. ## Footnote Foils help ensure that the identification process is fair and unbiased.

Answer 86

A standard used to determine the admissibility of scientific evidence in court based on general acceptance within the relevant scientific community. ## Footnote The Frye Test is often contrasted with the Daubert Test.

Answer 87

A systematic approach to understanding the purpose of specific behaviors by analyzing their antecedents and consequences. ## Footnote This method is often used in behavioral therapy.

Answer 88

Brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. ## Footnote fMRI is commonly used in neuroscience research.

Answer 89

A theory that explains how people remember and make decisions based on the gist of information rather than exact details. ## Footnote This theory has implications for understanding memory and reasoning.

Answer 90

The expectations and behaviors considered appropriate for individuals based on their gender. ## Footnote Gender roles can influence socialization and identity.

Answer 91

The physical closeness of individuals or groups, which can influence interactions and relationships. ## Footnote Proximity can affect social dynamics and criminal behavior.

Answer 92

A framework for offender rehabilitation that focuses on promoting positive life outcomes rather than merely reducing reoffending. ## Footnote GLM emphasizes the importance of fulfilling human needs for a successful reintegration into society.

Answer 93

The process by which an adult builds a relationship with a child to manipulate them into sexual activity. ## Footnote Grooming often involves desensitization and trust-building.

Answer 94

The actual state of affairs or reality that can be verified. ## Footnote Ground truth is often used in the context of validating data or claims.

Answer 95

A psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a group leads to irrational decision-making. ## Footnote Groupthink can hinder critical thinking and lead to poor outcomes.

Answer 96

A U.S. military detention facility known for holding terrorism suspects. ## Footnote Guantanamo Bay has been the subject of controversy regarding human rights and legal practices.

Answer 97

A legal process where a defendant is presumed guilty until proven innocent. ## Footnote This process can raise ethical and legal concerns.

Answer 98

A polygraph test designed to determine whether a person has knowledge of specific facts related to a crime. ## Footnote GKT is based on the premise that guilty individuals will have physiological responses to relevant questions.

Answer 99

A Palestinian militant organization known for its opposition to Israel. ## Footnote Hamas has been involved in both political and armed conflict.

Answer 100

Information received from another person that cannot be substantiated or verified. ## Footnote Hearsay is generally inadmissible as evidence in court.

Answer 101

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making processes. ## Footnote While heuristics can be helpful, they can also lead to cognitive biases.

Answer 102

Deceptive statements made in situations where the consequences of being caught are severe. ## Footnote High-stake lies often occur in legal contexts or high-pressure situations.

Answer 103

A Shiite Islamist militant group and political party based in Lebanon. ## Footnote Hezbollah is known for its opposition to Israel and involvement in regional conflicts.

Answer 104

The assumption that similar behaviors across different contexts or populations have similar underlying causes. ## Footnote This assumption is often applied in criminology and psychology.

Answer 105

An effect that is caused by medical treatment or intervention. ## Footnote Iatrogenic effects can include complications or side effects resulting from treatment.

Answer 106

A process where a witness is asked to identify a suspect from a group of individuals. ## Footnote Identity parades are crucial in eyewitness identification procedures.

Answer 107

A type of memory that is not consciously recalled but influences behavior and performance. ## Footnote Implicit memory is often demonstrated through skills and conditioned responses.

Answer 108

The act of restricting an offender's ability to commit further crimes, typically through imprisonment. ## Footnote Incapacitation aims to protect society from dangerous individuals.

Answer 109

Signs that suggest an individual may be involved in a series of related offenses. ## Footnote These indicators can assist law enforcement in identifying patterns of criminal behavior.

Answer 110

The impact of crime on individuals who are not the direct victims but are affected by the crime. ## Footnote This can include family members or witnesses.

Answer 111

The influence of others that leads individuals to accept information from them as evidence about reality. ## Footnote This type of influence can affect decision-making and behavior in group settings.

Answer 112

Legal systems where the court is actively involved in investigating the facts of the case. ## Footnote This system contrasts with adversarial systems, where parties present their cases.

Answer 113

A theory that explains the development of antisocial behavior through cognitive processes and environmental influences. ## Footnote ICAP theory emphasizes the role of social contexts in shaping behavior.

Answer 114

Models that combine various theories and perspectives to understand criminal behavior. ## Footnote These frameworks aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of crime.

Answer 115

The degree to which a treatment or intervention is delivered as intended. ## Footnote High integrity is essential for the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions.

Answer 116

A condition characterized by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. ## Footnote ID is diagnosed based on standardized testing and assessments.

Answer 117

A perspective that emphasizes the interplay between individual characteristics and environmental factors in shaping behavior. ## Footnote Interactional theory is often applied in criminology.

Answer 118

The phenomenon where maltreatment of children continues across generations. ## Footnote This cycle can perpetuate patterns of abuse and neglect.

Answer 119

Individuals who facilitate communication between vulnerable witnesses and the court. ## Footnote Intermediaries help ensure that testimony is accurately conveyed.

Answer 120

Psychological symptoms that are directed inward, such as anxiety and depression. ## Footnote Internalising symptoms can affect emotional well-being and functioning.

Answer 121

Training aimed at improving communication and relationship-building skills. ## Footnote This training can be beneficial in various personal and professional contexts.

Answer 122

Guidelines used by law enforcement to conduct interviews and interrogations. ## Footnote These manuals often include techniques for eliciting information.

Answer 123

The influence of an interviewer's expectations or beliefs on the information gathered during an interview. ## Footnote Interviewer bias can affect the accuracy of witness statements.

Answer 124

Abuse or violence that occurs between current or former partners in an intimate relationship. ## Footnote IPV can take many forms, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.

Answer 125

Intervention programs designed to address and prevent intimate partner violence. ## Footnote These programs often focus on education, counseling, and support for victims.

Answer 126

A technique used by law enforcement to gather information from witnesses or suspects. ## Footnote Effective investigative interviewing aims to enhance recall and accuracy.

Answer 127

A left-wing terrorist organization in Italy known for kidnapping and assassination. ## Footnote The Red Brigades were active during the 1970s and 1980s.

Answer 128

An individual who engages in jihad, often in a militant context. ## Footnote Jihadis are typically associated with extremist Islamic groups.

Answer 129

A French judicial officer responsible for overseeing investigations in criminal cases. ## Footnote This role is part of the inquisitorial legal system.

Answer 130

Legal jargon or complex language used by lawyers. ## Footnote Lawyerese can create barriers to understanding legal processes for laypersons.

Answer 131

A technique used to analyze voice patterns to detect stress or deception. ## Footnote LVA is sometimes used in security and investigative contexts.

Answer 132

Questions that suggest a particular answer or contain the information the questioner seeks. ## Footnote Leading questions can bias the responses of witnesses.

Answer 133

The formal and technical language used in legal documents and proceedings. ## Footnote Legalese can be difficult for non-lawyers to understand.

Answer 134

An assessment tool used to evaluate the needs and risks of offenders. ## Footnote This inventory helps inform rehabilitation and supervision strategies.

Answer 135

A pattern of criminal behavior that persists throughout an individual's life. ## Footnote This type of offending is often linked to various risk factors, including biological and environmental influences.

Answer 136

A theory suggesting that an individual's lifestyle choices can influence their likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. ## Footnote This theory emphasizes the role of social and environmental factors.

Answer 137

A procedure used by law enforcement to allow witnesses to identify a suspect from a group of individuals. ## Footnote Lineups can be either live or photo-based.

Answer 138

A text analysis program that assesses the emotional, cognitive, and structural components of language. ## Footnote LIWC is often used in psychological research to study language patterns.

Answer 139

A method allowing witnesses to give evidence from a remote location via video link. ## Footnote Live Link is used to protect vulnerable witnesses in court.

Answer 140

Acts of terrorism carried out by individuals without direct support from larger organizations. ## Footnote Lone wolf terrorists often act independently but may be inspired by extremist ideologies.

Answer 141

Research that follows the same subjects over a period of time to observe changes and developments. ## Footnote Longitudinal studies are valuable in understanding developmental processes.

Answer 142

The capacity to store and retrieve information over extended periods. ## Footnote Long-term memory can last from hours to a lifetime.

Answer 143

Deceptive statements made in situations where the consequences of being caught are minimal. ## Footnote Low-stake lies are common in everyday social interactions.

Answer 144

A lower court in England and Wales that deals with minor criminal cases. ## Footnote Magistrates' Courts typically handle summary offenses and preliminary hearings.

Answer 145

Irrational or dysfunctional thoughts that can lead to negative emotions and behaviors. ## Footnote Addressing maladaptive beliefs is crucial in cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Answer 146

Capable of being shaped or changed. ## Footnote In psychology, it often refers to the adaptability of memory and behavior.

Answer 147

Guidelines aimed at improving the quality of investigative interviews with vulnerable witnesses. ## Footnote MOGP emphasizes ethical practices and effective communication.

Answer 148

The mental state or intention of a person when committing a crime. ## Footnote Mens Rea is a crucial element in establishing criminal liability.

Answer 149

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies to identify overall trends. ## Footnote Meta-analysis is used to strengthen evidence in research.

Answer 150

The practice of being aware and present in the moment without judgment. ## Footnote Mindfulness can improve mental well-being and reduce stress.

Answer 151

The phenomenon where a person's memory of an event is altered by misleading information presented after the event. ## Footnote This effect can significantly impact eyewitness testimony.

Answer 152

A research framework used to study the effects of misleading information on memory recall. ## Footnote This paradigm helps explore the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.

Answer 153

A staged event designed for the purpose of research or training in criminal justice. ## Footnote Mock crimes can be used to study witness behavior and investigative techniques.

Answer 154

An actor or individual who simulates the role of a witness in training or research scenarios. ## Footnote Mock witnesses can help law enforcement practice interviewing techniques.

Answer 155

Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two embryos. ## Footnote MZ twins share 100% of their genetic material.

Answer 156

Photographs taken of individuals upon arrest for identification purposes. ## Footnote Mugshots are often used in police databases and media.

Answer 157

Collaborative frameworks involving multiple agencies to manage individuals who pose a risk to the public. ## Footnote MAPPA is often applied to sex offenders and violent criminals.

Answer 158

Interventions that use multiple methods or approaches to address complex issues. ## Footnote Multimodal programs are often employed in rehabilitation and therapy.

Answer 159

Oversees the management of offenders in England and Wales, focusing on rehabilitation and public safety. ## Footnote NOMS coordinates between prisons, probation services, and other agencies.

Answer 160

A guideline stating that interventions should target criminogenic needs to reduce reoffending. ## Footnote Addressing these needs is essential for effective rehabilitation.

Answer 161

Information that indicates a failure or deficiency in performance. ## Footnote Negative feedback can motivate individuals to improve their behavior or skills.

Answer 162

Techniques used to visualize the structure and function of the brain. ## Footnote Neuroimaging methods include MRI, fMRI, and PET scans.

Answer 163

A technique in interviewing where the interviewer allows the witness to speak freely without leading them. ## Footnote This approach can enhance the quality of information obtained.

Answer 164

The idea that an offender's behavior will remain consistent across different crimes. ## Footnote This hypothesis is often used in criminal profiling.

Answer 165

A tool used to assess the risk of reoffending among individuals. ## Footnote This scale helps inform supervision and rehabilitation strategies.

Answer 166

The practice of analyzing behavior patterns to identify characteristics of unknown offenders. ## Footnote Profiling can assist law enforcement in narrowing down suspects.

Answer 167

A structured intervention designed to address and change criminal behavior. ## Footnote These programs often focus on cognitive-behavioral techniques.

Answer 168

A paramilitary organization in Northern Ireland that was active during the Troubles. ## Footnote The Official IRA sought to achieve Irish reunification through political means.

Answer 169

A technique that pairs an unpleasant odor with a specific behavior to discourage that behavior. ## Footnote This method is sometimes used in behavioral therapies.

Answer 170

A framework for conducting interviews that emphasizes planning, engagement, account, closure, and evaluation. ## Footnote The PEACE model is designed to improve the quality of information obtained from witnesses.

Answer 171

The study of punishment and prison systems. ## Footnote Penology examines the effectiveness of various correctional practices.

Answer 172

A collection of photographs presented to a witness for identification purposes. ## Footnote Photo-spreads are often used when a live lineup is not feasible.

Answer 173

The tendency for group discussions to lead to more extreme positions among group members. ## Footnote Polarisation can affect decision-making and consensus-building.

Answer 174

A key piece of legislation that regulates police powers and procedures in England and Wales. ## Footnote PACE aims to protect the rights of individuals during police investigations.

Answer 175

A device used to measure physiological responses to determine truthfulness. ## Footnote Polygraphs are often used in investigations, though their reliability is debated.

Answer 176

Information presented after an event that can influence a person's memory of that event. ## Footnote Post-event information can lead to memory distortions.

Answer 177

The process of organizing and planning for a trial or legal proceeding. ## Footnote Effective preparation is essential for successful legal representation.

Answer 178

Based on the first impression; accepted as correct until proven otherwise. ## Footnote Prima facie evidence is sufficient to establish a case unless contradicted.

Answer 179

Having the effect of proving something in court. ## Footnote Probative evidence is crucial for establishing the facts of a case.

Answer 180

A structured plan designed to deliver specific therapeutic interventions. ## Footnote Programmes can vary widely in focus, duration, and methodology.

Answer 181

The degree to which a program is implemented as intended. ## Footnote High programme integrity is essential for achieving desired outcomes.

Answer 182

A treatment for PTSD that involves repeated, detailed recounting of traumatic experiences. ## Footnote This therapy aims to reduce symptoms by desensitizing individuals to their trauma.

Answer 183

The highest standard of proof required in criminal trials, indicating that there is no reasonable doubt about the defendant's guilt. ## Footnote This standard protects the rights of the accused.

Answer 184

The legal party responsible for presenting a case against an individual accused of a crime. ## Footnote The prosecution seeks to prove the defendant's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.

Answer 185

Research studies that follow a group of individuals over time to observe changes and developments. ## Footnote These surveys can provide valuable insights into trends and behaviors.

Answer 186

A paramilitary organization that was active in Northern Ireland, known for its violent campaigns for Irish reunification. ## Footnote The Provisional IRA was one of the main groups involved in the Troubles.

Answer 187

A device that measures stress levels through voice analysis to assess truthfulness. ## Footnote PSEs are sometimes used in investigations and security screenings.

Answer 188

A positive relationship between the interviewer and interviewee that facilitates open communication. ## Footnote Building rapport can enhance the quality of information obtained during interviews.

Answer 189

A process used to distinguish between real memories and imagined ones. ## Footnote RM is important in assessing the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 190

The ability to retrieve information from memory without prompts or cues. ## Footnote Recall is a key component of memory assessments.

Answer 191

The ability to identify previously encountered information when presented with it. ## Footnote Recognition is often easier than recall in memory tasks.

Answer 192

The act of remembering or retrieving past experiences or information. ## Footnote Recollection can be influenced by various factors, including context and cues.

Answer 193

A West German far-left militant organization known for its terrorist activities. ## Footnote The Red Army Faction was active from the 1970s to the 1990s.

Answer 194

The questioning of a witness by the party that called them after cross-examination. ## Footnote Re-examination seeks to clarify or expand on the witness's testimony.

Answer 195

The process of reforming an offender to prevent future criminal behavior. ## Footnote Rehabilitation programs often focus on education, therapy, and life skills.

Answer 196

Strategies designed to help individuals maintain behavioral change and avoid returning to previous harmful behaviors. ## Footnote Relapse prevention is often used in addiction treatment programs.

Answer 197

The process of evaluating a suspect's likeness to a perpetrator based on comparisons with other individuals. ## Footnote Relative judgement can impact eyewitness identification accuracy.

Answer 198

Cognitive interview prompt to tell everything about the incident under investigation. ## Footnote Reports can include police reports, witness statements, and expert analyses.

Answer 199

the degree to which a sample of jurors represents the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Answer 200

no agreed definition - but usually taken to mean the absence of psychopathology and successful functioning over a number of domains.

Answer 201

the required criterion of the subjective “recognition” required to make an identification from a lineup. It is used as a measure of bias in signal detection theory. A higher criterion indicates more conservative responding so the witness is less likely to make a mistaken identification but also less likely to identify a guilty suspect.

Answer 202

a design feature that contributes to effectiveness of intervention programmes with offenders. Can be general (an overall approach) or specific (taking into account factors that reflect diversity amongst participants).

Answer 203

developed by Andrews and colleagues alongside the principles of risk and need: this principle proposes that the method of delivery of an intervention should match the learning styles of those to whom it is delivered.

Answer 204

(also restorative justice) a relatively recent departure entailing services through which offenders make reparations to their victims for the harm they have done

Answer 205

one of the objectives of sentencing and an influential theory of the sentencing process based on the proposal that the harm done by offenders requires society to rectify the imbalance created by punishing them appropriately.

Answer 206

the process of accessing a memory. Retrieval might involve recall recognition or facilitation on an indirect test of memory.

Answer 207

refers to the fact that more recently encoded or stronger information blocks access to the memory trace of an initially experienced event.

Answer 208

one knowing all the facts would feel that the passing of any sentence other than a custodial one had not done justice.

Answer 209

a set of procedures and methods for estimating the likelihood of future offending by an individual or the level of harm that might be caused by it and for identifying the factors associated with it.

Answer 210

an individual or environmental variable that has been shown through empirical research to be associated with greater likelihood of involvement in criminal activity (or other type of problem). Static risk factors are historically set by past events (e.g. age at first conviction); dynamic risk factors are more immediate influences on offending behaviour are likely to vary over short or medium-term periods and are potentially susceptible to change through intervention efforts.

Answer 211

system of arrangements or interventions put in place to contain or reduce the likelihood of recurrence of harmful behaviour alongside procedures for monitoring this over time.

Answer 212

developed by Andrews and colleagues alongside the principles of need and responsivity. States that the level of intervention received by an offender should match the level of risk that offender poses. Higher risk individuals should receive a higher level of intervention than lower risk individuals.

Answer 213

a risk management rehabilitation model that seeks to reduce offenders’

Answer 214

reducing or controlling personality and/or situational variables as appropriate.

Answer 215

a series of legal questions to assist the jury in reaching a decision.

Answer 216

standards governing whether evidence in a civil or criminal case is admissible.

Answer 217

the process of protecting individuals from abuse or neglect preventing impairment of their health and development and promoting their welfare and life chances.

Answer 218

a form of Islam that is defined by its rejection of the “taqlid” (imitation) of the four canonical Islamic madhahib the traditional schools of Islamic jurisprudence and suggests it is necessary to return to the original sources in order to make any judgment.

Answer 219

general conceptual frameworks regarding objects people and situations.

Answer 220

a technique originally developed by Sapir based on the assumption that a statement based on a memory of an actual experience differs in content from a statement based on invention.

Answer 221

one of the special measures permitted by the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999. The use of a screen may allow a vulnerable witness to give their evidence and be examined in court without having sight of the accused.

Answer 222

a type of schema involving behaviour or action. A representation of the typical format of repeated everyday events such as buying goods in a shop eating a meal in restaurant etc.

Answer 223

voluntarily setting oneself on fire as a form of protest and suicide.

Answer 224

a form of cognitive behavioural intervention designed to increase an individual’s capacity for exercising internalised control over aspects of their thoughts feelings or behaviour that are causing difficulty or distress.

Answer 225

hand/finger and leg/foot movements popularly believed to be associated with deception.

Answer 226

a term used in signal detection theory to refer to the ability of a memory system to distinguish between a previously encountered item (e.g. the culprit) from a novel item (e.g. an innocent suspect).

Answer 227

the penalty imposed on an individual found guilty of an offence in a court of law; sentencing is the process through which this is decided.

Answer 228

a method in which a lineup is presented one person at a time. The witness decides whether each person is the perpetrator before they see the next person.

Answer 229

refers to a series of murders that may have been committed by the same individual(s).

Answer 230

offenders who have committed more than one offence against different victims. This term can be applied to specific crime types (e.g. serial rape

Answer 231

the magnitude of a punishment or the estimated amount of pain or discomfort a convicted offender would be likely to endure.

Answer 232

physical forensic evidence left at a crime scene consisting of an impression of the shoe/footwear worn by the offender.

Answer 233

a theory often applied to analyse data from human studies of perception and memory. The original application was the detection of a signal in background noise. In memory research it is used to measure the sensitivity of a memory system independently of the response criterion or bias.

Answer 234

the traditional method of presenting a lineup in which the witness can see and compare all of the members of the lineup at the same time.

Answer 235

factors within an individual’s environment that influence his/her behaviour.

Answer 236

a theory proposing that people are inhibited from offending according to the strength of their bonding to society.

Answer 237

the likelihood that a person will respond to social influence increases with strength immediacy and number.

Answer 238

suggests that people learn from one another via observation imitation and reinforcement. The theory has been described as a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention memory and motivation.

Answer 239

the phenomenon where people make less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone.

Answer 240

cognitive frameworks that guide an individual’s behaviour by providing organisational structures for new experiences or social cues.

Answer 241

factors within both society and cultures that guide the thoughts and behaviour of people.

Answer 242

the attribution of a memory to a specific source or episode. A source attribution error refers to a situation when a memory is mistakenly attributed to the incorrect source or episode.

Answer 243

incorrect attribution of the source of a memory (e.g. confusing internal thoughts with physical reality).

Answer 244

specified in the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 that may be ordered by the judge for eligible witnesses by means of a special measures direction. They include screens/live links/video-recorded evidence-in-chief/intermediaries and aids to communication.

Answer 245

a range of unwanted and repeated actions directed towards a specific individual that induce fear or concern for safety or that induce feelings of harassment.

Answer 246

indicates the degree to which the point must be proven. In a civil case the burden of proof rests with the plaintiff who must establish his or her case by such standards of proof as a “preponderance of evidence” or “clear and convincing evidence”.

Answer 247

a technique for assessing the veracity of a child’s statement on the basis of verbal content. The overall SVA procedure involves a semi-structured interview: a criteria-based content analysis (CBCA) of the statements made and an evaluation of the CBCA outcome.

Answer 248

a generalised belief about an entity or a group of people that is often over- simplified and does not take account of individual differences or other variation in everyday situations.

Answer 249

the process by which a memory is maintained over time. Storage can be subject to decay or interference from similar memories.

Answer 250

holistic judgments based on causal relations between evidence.

Answer 251

may be conducted shortly after a crime has been committed if there is insufficient evidence to arrest the suspect in the absence of an identification. A street identification may consist of allowing the witness to view an informal group/driving the witness around the area to see if they recognise the culprit/or a confrontation with a person already detained.

Answer 252

emotional arousal induced in a victim or witness. High stress increases physiological arousal indicated by increased heart rate/faster respiration/increased muscle tone.

Answer 253

a form of therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder that attempts to inoculate the individual from future stressful situations.

Answer 254

an umbrella term to describe conditions such as intoxication/harmful use/ dependence/withdrawal and psychoses or amnesia associated with the use of the substance

Answer 255

distortion of memory that arises from misleading post-event information.

Answer 256

thoughts or behaviours associated with suicide.

Answer 257

a criminal offence that is tried only by a magistrates court.

Answer 258

what is implicitly involved in making an assertion; a presupposition is a necessary condition for either the truth or the falsity of the statement that presupposes it.

Answer 259

a method of selecting members of a lineup on the criterion that their appearance is similar to the appearance of the suspect (see also culprit- description strategy)

Answer 260

symptoms and syndromes associated with a particular condition or phenomenon.

Answer 261

factors that may affect the reliability of eyewitness memory that are under the control of the criminal justice system. The selection of foils for a lineup is an example of a system variable (see also estimator variables).

Answer 262

a separatist organisation based in Northern Sri Lanka seeking to create a separate state for the Tamil people. It conducted extensive terrorist attacks and had a very well developed military structure. In 2009 it was defeated by the Sri Lankan Army.

Answer 263

systematic attempt to reduce further offence recidivism by work with convicted offenders within the criminal justice system. (Primary prevention has a long-term focus; secondary prevention works with those at risk of delinquency.)

Answer 264

the ability to attribute mental states (i.e. beliefs/intents/desires/pretending/knowledge) to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs/desires and intentions that are different from one’s own.

Answer 265

misinformation that overwrites or amends the memory trace of the initially experienced event.

Answer 266

cognitive interview instruction designed to pass control of an interview to the interviewee.

Answer 267

vivid mental imagery induced by the plot of a story.

Answer 268

occurs when an external force traumatically injures the brain.

Answer 269

if a child’s statement is based on the memory of an actual experience it will differ in content and quality from a statement based on fabrication.

Answer 270

The final stage of the statement validity analysis (SVA) in which alternative hypotheses are considered concerning a child’s statement.

Answer 271

learning to behave in a certain way as a result of observing the reinforcing and punishing consequences of that behaviour for other people.

Answer 272

a lineup in which the witness views successive video clips of the lineup members. It is used for the overwhelming majority of formal identification procedures in England and Wales

Answer 273

First introduced by the Criminal Justice Act 1991

Answer 274

belief that by measuring the activity in the muscles responsible for producing speech it may be possible to infer the speaker’s mental state (e.g. experiences of stress).

Answer 275

jury selection process of questioning prospective jurors.

Answer 276

a false confession offered by the suspect without any coercion from the investigator.

Answer 277

the derivation of sexual pleasure from observing other individuals involved in sexual acts. Non-consensual voyeurism is deemed to be an illegal act in England and Wales under section 67 of Sexual Offences Act 2003.

Answer 278

a witness may be vulnerable due to their youth/incapacity/circumstances

Answer 279

Wahabism is a radical branch of Islam developed by Muhammad ibn Abd al- Wahhab. It is the dominant form of Islam in Saudi Arabia and is characterised by an ultraconservative interpretation of Islam.

Answer 280

a temporary memory system that permits the simultaneous storage and manipulation of information prior to possible storage in long-term memory. Working memory is needed for complex tasks such as reasoning/comprehension/learning.

All Key Terms Flashcards

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