ALL QUIZES Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
According to the authors of the text, personality theories
a. are former principles that have been proven true.
b. originate from the historical, social, and psychological world of their originators.
c. are useful tools of science to the extent that they are value-free.
d. should not be open to falsification.
A
b. originate from the historical, social, and psychological world of their originators
2
Q
A useful theory should be parsimonious, meaning that it should be
a. based on empirical research.
b. complex.
c. simple.
d. verifiable.
A
c. simple.
3
Q
If scores on an instrument that measures introversion correlate highly with a number of other measures of introversion—ex, shyness and inhibition—then that instrument is said to have
a. discriminant validity.
b. convergent validity.
c. divergent validity.
d. test-retest reliability.
A
b. convergent validity.
4
Q
The extent that a test predicts some future behaviour is said to have
a. test-retest reliability.
b. predictive validity.
c. divergent validity.
d. internal consistency.
A
b. predictive validity.
5
Q
Which of the following is true of descriptive research?
a. It is designed to test hypotheses.
b. It contributes to expanding a theory.
c. It is that which uses an experimental design.
d. It is expressed by if-then statements.
A
b. It contributes to expanding a theory.
6
Q
A useful theory must be falsifiable, which means that it
a. will eventually be proven false.
b. must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets.
c. should be flexible enough to encompass opposing data within its framework.
d. must be either true or false.
A
b. must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets.
7
Q
Which statement best characterizes the relationship between a theory and a hypothesis?
a. A theory is narrower than a hypothesis.
b. A theory is directly verifiable, a hypothesis is not.
c. A theory is logically deduced from a specific hypothesis.
d. A theory may generate one or more hypotheses.
A
d. A theory may generate one or more hypotheses.
8
Q
According to Freud, the ego’s dependency on the superego results in __________ anxiety.
a. realistic
b. neurotic
c. moral
d. traumatic
A
c. moral
9
Q
Which of the following occurs after a successful psychoanalytic treatment?
a. Neurotic symptoms are repressed in patients.
b. Psychic energy strengthens the superego in patients.
c. A patient’s ego is expanded with previously repressed material.
d. A patient’s ego is incorporated into the superego.
A
c. A patient’s ego is expanded with previously repressed material.
10
Q
The use of Freudian defence mechanisms requires an
a. expenditure of psychic energy.
b. extremely strong superego.
c. immediate return to primary narcissism.
d. exposure of the superego to prolonged anxiety.
A
a. expenditure of psychic energy.
11
Q
Which of these progressions is most consistent with the psychoanalytic theory?
a. Anxiety leads to repression, which leads to suppression of sexual feelings, which in turn leads to a reaction formation.
b. Punishment of a child’s sexual behaviour leads to repression, which leads to anxiety, which in turn leads to suppression of sexual activity.
c. Punishment of a child’s sexual behaviour leads to suppression of sexual behaviour, which leads to anxiety, which in turn leads to repression.
d. Anxiety leads to suppression of sexual feelings, which leads to repression, which in turn leads to punishment of sexual behaviours.
A
c. Punishment of a child’s sexual behaviour leads to suppression of sexual behaviour, which leads to anxiety, which in turn leads to repression
12
Q
“Freudian slips” are a product of
a. dreamwork.
b. free association.
c. birth order.
d. unconscious forces.
A
d. unconscious forces.
13
Q
Freud’s psychoanalysis rests on which two cornerstones?
a. ego and id
b. id and superego
c. self-defence and self-enhancement
d. sex and aggression
A
d. sex and aggression
14
Q
According to Adler, ______________ is the “barometer of normality.”
a. social interest
b. creative power
c. subjectivity of perception
d. fictional finalism
A
a. social interest
15
Q
The night before Adler made his first trip to the United States, he dreamed that
a. his ship capsized and he had to swim to safety.
b. he saw Freud on board the ship and that Freud asked him to hold his coat.
c. he saw a smiling Freud on board the ship and that Freud admitted that individual psychology was superior to psychoanalysis.
d. a huge American audience was applauding loudly after one of his speeches.
A
a. his ship capsized and he had to swim to safety.
16
Q
Unlike Freud’s psychoanalysis, Adler’s individual psychology assumes that
a. behaviour is shaped by past experiences.
b. people are mostly responsible for their personalities.
c. most behaviours are motivated by unconscious forces.
d. the sexual instinct is the basis for most human behaviour.
A
b. people are mostly responsible for their personalities.
17
Q
According to Adler, _____ is the dynamic force motivating all human activity.
a. organ dialect
b. innate forces
c. the striving for success
d. inferior physical endowment
A
c. the striving for success
18
Q
Vacillating, procrastinating, or behaving compulsively are examples of which Adlerian safeguarding tendency?
a. moving backward
b. standing still
c. hesitating
d. excuses
A
c. hesitating
19
Q
Adler believed that dreams
a. are expressions of infantile wishes.
b. provide clues for solving future problems.
c. are prophetic.
d. can be easily understood by the dreamer.
A
b. provide clues for solving future problems.
20
Q
Adler’s notion of moving backward is similar to Freud’s notion of
a. sublimation.
b. fixation.
c. repression.
d. regression.
A
d. regression.
21
Q
Describe Freud’s three provinces of the mind.
A
ID - unconscious, primitive drives. no contact with reality, illogical, amoral, strives to satisfy basic desires. Its sole function is to seek pleasure without regard (pleasure principle)
Ego - balances the drive of the ID against reality. Only region in contact with reality. It reconciles the claims of the ID with the world.
SUPEREGO - focuses on the moral and ideals of the person, not the pleasure seeking or realistic principles of the other two. It has no contact with the world and can be unrealistic in its pursuit of perfection. This determines what we should and should not do, it is where conscience lives. It controls sexual and aggressive impulses through repression, by ordering the EGO.
22
Q
Briefly describe Freud’s concept of dreams.
A
He believed that dreams represent unconscious desires and material, repressed drives, wish fulfillments and contain sexual symbols. Freud claimed that dreams are formed in the unconscious but work there way into the conscious; the unconscious, which is our ID, gets expressed in dreams in an attempt to resolve repressed emotions, and aggressive impulses.
He believed that the latent content of dreams is a representation of childhood experiences, and that the interpretation of dreams provides knowledge on the unconscious.
23
Q
Discuss Adler’s concept of fictionalism.
A
Fictions are an individuals expectations and beliefs about the future, which guide behaviour.
Adler believed that people are very strongly motivated by their goals and ideals; the goal of success which we create very early in our lives, and which guides our life and personality. This motivation is guided by what we think is true, and not necessarily based on actual reality. This belief is in line with Adler’s teleological view of motivation.
24
Q
What are the similarities and differences between Freud’s defence mechanisms and Adler’s safeguarding tendencies?
A
They are similar in that they both carry the idea that symptoms are a protection (safeguard) against anxiety.
Freud’s defence mechanism operate unconsciously in order to protect the ego against anxiety, and they apply to all. Whereas, Adler’s safeguarding tendencies are mainly conscious to protect a persons self esteem and hide their self image, and it applies neurotic symptoms to maintain a fictional elevated view of self.
Freud reference 9 different types of defence mechanisms (denial, repression, displacement, sublimation etc),
Adler references three main safeguarding tendencies, (excuses, aggression, withdrawal
25
```
According to Jung, the confession of a pathogenic secret in psychotherapy involves the
Select one:
a. cathartic method.
b. psychoanalytic approach.
c. development of social interest.
d. stage of transformation
```
The correct answer is: cathartic method.
26
Jung’s notion of the collective unconscious refers to
Select one:
a. repressed childhood experiences.
b. repressed experiences from adolescence.
c. ideas inherited from our ancestors.
d. people’s tendency to react to biologically inherited response patterns
The correct answer is: people’s tendency to react to biologically inherited response patterns
27
```
The great mother is Jung’s archetype of
Select one:
a. farmers and ranchers.
b. nourishment and destruction.
c. children.
d. thinking and opinions.
```
The correct answer is: nourishment and destruction.
28
Jung’s theory sees humans as
Select one:
a. a composite of opposing forces.
b. evolved animals, but with no animal instincts.
c. destined to destroy themselves or others with modern warfare.
d. biological creatures trapped in a social environment.
The correct answer is: a composite of opposing forces.
29
```
According to Jung, which function involves perception beyond consciousness?
Select one:
a. thinking
b. feeling
c. sensation
d. intuition
```
The correct answer is: intuition
30
According to Klein, the two basic positions are
Select one:
a. introjection and projection.
b. the paranoid-schizoid and the depressive.
c. ego and superego.
d. the mature and the immature.
The correct answer is: the paranoid-schizoid and the depressive
31
If a hungry infant cries and kicks, Klein would say that it is
Select one:
a. motivated by the death instinct.
b. inventing a sign language to communicate distress with its mother.
c. fantasizing about kicking or destroying the “bad” breast.
d. engaging in random behaviour.
The correct answer is: fantasizing about kicking or destroying the “bad” breast.
32
```
Which object relations theorist spent much time observing normal babies as they bonded with their mothers during the first three years of life?
Select one:
a. Melanie Klein
b. Margaret Mahler
c. Otto Kernberg
d. Heinz Kohut
```
The correct answer is: Margaret Mahler
33
```
Klein agreed with Freud that people can be motivated by
Select one:
a. interpersonal relationships.
b. human contact and relatedness.
c. a death instinct.
d. nurturing by the mother.
```
The correct answer is: a death instinct.
34
```
Mahler believed that children begin to develop feelings of personal identity during which developmental stage?
Select one:
a. normal symbiosis
b. separation-individuation
c. normal autism
d. preadolescence
```
The correct answer is: separation-individuation
35
```
According to Horney, neurotics strive in pathological ways to find love, rather than benefiting from the need for it. Their attempts often result in
Select one:
a. an increased need for affection.
b. high self-esteem.
c. decreased competitiveness.
d. decreased hostility.
```
The correct answer is: an increased need for affection.
36
Horney’s concept of humanity was based mostly on her
Select one:
a. clinical experiences with neurotic patients.
b. reaction against Freud’s psychoanalysis.
c. search for the self-actualizing person.
d. training in sociology.
The correct answer is: clinical experiences with neurotic patients.
37
Horney recognized that some women may wish to be a man due to
Select one:
a. penis envy.
b. womb envy.
c. the cultural privileges that are regarded as masculine.
d. anatomical differences between the sexes.
The correct answer is: the cultural privileges that are regarded as masculine.
38
```
Kip seeks out powerful people to be his friends. Horney would say that Kip’s need for a powerful partner
Select one:
a. is an sign of high self-esteem.
b. is a neurotic need.
c. produces basic anxiety.
d. will result in shame and guilt.
```
The correct answer is: is a neurotic need.
39
```
Horney believed that intrapsychic processes originate from
Select one:
a. interpersonal experiences.
b. the collective unconscious.
c. the neurotic trends.
d. instinctual strivings.
```
The correct answer is: interpersonal experiences.
40
```
According to Horney, how does Western society hinder people’s attempts to find love?
Select one:
a. It rewards competitiveness.
b. It rewards failure.
c. It limits free choice.
d. All of the choices are correct.
```
The correct answer is: It rewards competitiveness.
41
```
According to Erikson, _____ is the antithesis of wisdom and is the core pathology of old age.
Select one:
a. disdain
b. rejection
c. rage
d. impotence
```
The correct answer is: disdain
42
```
In the context of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development, individuals in the ______________ stage develop a sense of control over their interpersonal environment, as well as a sense of self-control.
Select one:
a. infancy
b. early childhood
c. latter childhood
d. play age
```
The correct answer is: early childhood
43
```
The core pathology of adolescence, according to Erikson, is
Select one:
a. isolation.
b. inferiority.
c. incompetence.
d. role repudiation.
```
The correct answer is: role repudiation.
44
```
“A widening commitment to take care of the persons, the products, and the ideas one has learned to care for” is what Erikson called
Select one:
a. intimacy.
b. care.
c. procreativity.
d. generativity.
```
The correct answer is: care.
45
List and describe two major archetypes.
Persona: this is essentially how we present ourself to the world; these are the various masks that we were to "shield" our ego and fit into the world disguising our urges, emotions and impulses that would be seemed socially unacceptable. It represents what we project in society. You can compare it to an actor, who acts the part; its the face we wear in society to portray how we think we should be based on societies norms and expectations. Jung makes it clear that we cannot confuse our public face with the reality of personality, if the lines become too blurred we don't achieve self realization.
The shadow: this is the part of our unconscious mind that holds our repressed thoughts and idea's, weaknesses and desires; the parts of ourselves that we dont want to acknowledge and attempt to hide from others. The shadow contains the things that are unacceptable to ourselves and to society as whole, greed, envy, hate, aggression. Our first test of courage comes from knowing our shadow and coming to terms with it. This essentially is the dark side of our personality and Jung believed it is in all of us, whether we deny it or not is the question.
46
Describe how Jung and Klein see the ego.
Jung:
• viewed the ego as the core of consciousness, not a factor of personality (which is largely unconscious).
• the part of ourself that that takes relevant information from the environment to make decisions based from
• he believed it has 4 functions (different ways of perceiving reality); sensation, feeling, thinking, intuition.
• These 4 ego functions are developed throughout life.
• it links the inner and outer world
• it lies in the self archetype
Klein:
• firmly grounded in Freud's view
• the ego is one's sense of self, which matures from infancy (unorganized at birth) as their view of the world changes...beginning in infancy with feeding.
• a child will develop mechanisms to protect their ego against the anxiety
• ego must be split between good and bad before it can be unified - allows children to accept bad behaviour
• the ego can sense destructive and loving forces and manage anxiety through splitting, projection, and introjection
47
Define object relations theory.
* A psychoanalytical theory where an infants drives are directed to an object (ex - mothers breasts) which serves as a prototype for later relations.
* the process of developing psyche in relation to others and environment - which is shaped by experiences in infancy that are then turned into events in the unconscious and into adulthood these events in the unconscious are used to predict behaviour, relationships and interactions.
* places emphasis on interpersonal relationships - stressing the importance of maternal relationships
* see's human contact as the prime motivator for human behaviour, not individual drives
* personality is formed out of interpersonal interactions
48
Briefly describe Horney’s three neurotic trends.
constitute Horney’s theory of neurosis - fundamental defences to anxiety
1) moving toward people
• a desire for belonging
• basic needs for affection and appreciation
• the need to protect against helplessness, so they employ a neurotic need (strive for affection and approval or seek a partner who will take care of them)
• subordinate themselves to others to see what they want to see or to rate themselves as others see them
• based on safety in the world
• can lead to very difficult rejection as assuming that others have genuine kindness
• cope with hostility by moving towards
2) moving against people
• Motivated by a basic need for control over others
• power is pursued.
• strategies are used to ensure that safety will not be breeched by aggressive/hostile others.
• a combative attitude towards others
• cope with hostility by overpowering it
• survival of the fittest
• motivated by a need to exploit others for their own benefit.
3) moving away from people.
• an expression of a need for independence, privacy, and self-sufficiency.
• driven to move away from people, shun commitment as they don't want to be needed by others
• value freedom and don't want others close to them
• strong need to be superior
• emotionally detached
• don't like competition for fear of imposing on their superiority
49
```
Fromm believed that authoritarianism takes two forms:
Select one:
a. normal and neurotic.
b. fear and anxiety.
c. masochism and sadism.
d. obsessive and compulsive.
```
The correct answer is: masochism and sadism
50
According to Fromm, which of the following statements is true about people who use conformity as a mechanism of escape?
Select one:
a. They lack authenticity and individuality.
b. They often behave in a stiff, predictable manner.
c. They lose their identity as unique individuals.
d. All of the choices are correct.
The correct answer is: All of the choices are correct.
51
```
Fromm regarded his parents as
Select one:
a. ideal models.
b. having neurotic personalities.
c. having been overburdened with too many children.
d. overly religious.
```
The correct answer is: having neurotic personalities.
52
```
Fromm asserted that as people gained more economic and political freedom, they felt more
Select one:
a. isolation.
b. dominance.
c. transcendence.
d. malignant aggression
```
The correct answer is: isolation.
53
According to Fromm, which of the following is not a sadistic tendency?
Select one:
a. the need to accept criticism from others
b. the need to gain power over others
c. the need to exploit and use others
d. the desire to see others suffer
The correct answer is: the need to accept criticism from others
54
According to Maslow, metamotivation
Select one:
a. is characterized by coping behaviour rather than expressive behaviour.
b. is associated with deficiency needs.
c. differentiates self-actualizers from non-self-actualizers.
d. All of the choices are correct.
The correct answer is: differentiates self-actualizers from non-self-actualizers.
55
According to Maslow, metamotivation is
Select one:
a. a characteristic of psychotic individuals.
b. the need for friendship and acceptance by others.
c. a drive to do one’s best and to achieve fame.
d. the motivation of self-actualizing people.
The correct answer is: the motivation of self-actualizing people.
56
Several studies have found that when people were instructed to “fake good” or “make a favourable impression” when filling out the Personal Orientation Inventory, they scored
Select one:
a. in the high range of self-actualization.
b. in the direction away from self-actualization.
c. in the neurotic and psychotic range.
d. within the normal range; the instructions had no effects on their responses.
The correct answer is: in the direction away from self-actualization.
57
```
According to Maslow, people who do not embrace the B-values suffer from
Select one:
a. metapathology.
b. individuation.
c. basic anxiety.
d. lack of self-esteem
```
The correct answer is: metapathology.
58
```
According to Maslow, coping behaviour is usually
Select one:
a. learned.
b. conscious.
c. effortful.
d. All of the choices are correct.
```
The correct answer is: All of the choices are correct.
59
Which one of the following is NOT one of Maslow's four criteria for reaching self-actualization?
Select one:
a. having complete freedom from any type of psychopathology.
b. achieving total satisfaction of all lower needs.
c. being motivated by the B-values.
d. having solved all interpersonal problems.
The correct answer is: having solved all interpersonal problems.
60
```
Which of the following did Rogers regard as one of the conditions both necessary and sufficient for becoming a fully functioning or self-actualizing person?
Select one:
a. confidence
b. self-exploration
c. congruence
d. curiosity
```
The correct answer is: congruence
61
For Rogers, the source of people’s positive self-regard is
Select one:
a. the positive regard that they receive from others.
b. outstanding personal achievements.
c. the conditions of worth that they receive from others.
d. a pattern of successfully responding to other’s criticisms.
The correct answer is: the positive regard that they receive from others.
62
```
Rogers referred to the tendency for the person of tomorrow to live in the present moment as
Select one:
a. self-actualization.
b. positive regard.
c. existential living.
d. transcendence of time.
```
The correct answer is: existential living.
63
```
Which of these is not characteristic of Rogers’s “person of tomorrow”?
Select one:
a. openness to experience
b. trust in other individuals
c. constant state of change
d. harmonious relations with others
```
The correct answer is: trust in other individuals
64
Rogers said that an established self-concept
Select one:
a. facilitates psychological growth.
b. is usually congruent with the organismic self.
c. is ordinarily more inflated than the ideal self.
d. renders change and significant learnings more difficult.
The correct answer is: renders change and significant learnings more difficult.
65
May was critical of
Select one:
a. the antiscientific views of some existentialists.
b. attempts to dilute existential psychology into a painless method of psychological self-help.
c. Rogers’s views on the nature of human evil.
d. All of the above choices are correct.
The correct answer is: All of the above choices are correct.
66
```
According to May, in North American society, sex is frequently confused with
Select one:
a. care.
b. eros.
c. pleasure.
d. philia.
```
The correct answer is: eros.
67
```
According to May, a person’s refusal to accept ontological guilt
Select one:
a. leads to superior adaptation.
b. indicates psychological health.
c. leads to neurotic or morbid guilt.
d. has no effect on Dasein.
```
The correct answer is: leads to neurotic or morbid guilt.
68
```
May said that eros
Select one:
a. is the salivation of sex.
b. is built on the foundation of agape.
c. is the wish to establish a lasting union.
d. emerges during midlife.
```
The correct answer is: is the wish to establish a lasting union.
69
Describe Fromm’s character orientations.
Character orientations refers to our relatively permanent way of relating to people and things; this is produced by family. People act according to their character, instead of their instincts.
People relate to the world by acquiring and using things (assimilation) and by relating to self and others (socialization).
There are four non-productive orientations in which people can relate to things and people:
(1) receiving things passively - only way to relate to the world is to receive things, more concerned with receiving than giving
(2) exploiting, or taking things through force - aggressively take what they want with little regard, not oppose to exploitation. dont create things, but rather cheat, steal,
(3) hoarding objects - live in the past and hold onto things, possessive and have little room for growth and change.
(4) marketing or exchanging things. - see themselves as commodities with their personal value being wrapped up in their exchangeable value. the ability to sell themselves in the driving force.
one productive orientation in which people can relate to things or people, that has 3 components, working, love and reasoning. In order to unite with the world and live authentically with uniqueness and individuality these 3 components are key. Love must come first, self love and love for others.
70
Briefly discuss Rogers’s concept of self and its development.
Self-concept:
• the personal knowledge of who we are
• this includes all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves (physically, personally, and socially)
• includes our knowledge of how we behave and our knowledge of our capabilities, and characteristics.
• Our self-concept develops quickly during childhood and adolescence, however, it continues to form and change over time as we learn more about ourselves, through differentiation, social comparison, social perception, success and approval.
• It can be influenced by social situations and an individuals motivation for seeking self-knowledge
• self-concept has three components:self-image (the way we see ourselves), self-esteem (the value we place on ourselves), and the ideal self (the self we would like to be)
• self image and ideal self overlap (congruence), which leads to self actualization.
• incongruence (discrepancy between the two) leads to cognitive dissonance and prevents self actualization
71
List five of the characteristics of self-actualizers according to Maslow.
the highest level of human development - the good human beings according to Maslow.
Maslow believed, people must be regularly satisfied in their other needs and must also embrace the B-values
1. Acceptance of Self, Others, and Nature
• Self-actualizing people can accept themselves the way they are.
• they are not defensive, phoney, or filled with and self-defeating guilt
• they have an appetite for food, sleep, and sex
• refrain from being overly critical of their shortcomings
• not weighed down with anxieties
• accept nature and do not expect perfection
2. Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness
• unconventional
• ethical even though they may not appear as such
• conventional - they can alter this
• spontaneous behaviour, in a natural way
• ordinary simple lives
• able to express deeply felt emotions
• unpretentious
3. The Need for Privacy
• can be alone without being lonely
• comfortable in their own skin
• solitude makes them happy as its private and they are not searching for the love and belonging from others
• they make well thought out choices, instead of through an insecure lens
• self movers - resisting societies expectations
4. Autonomy
• depend on themselves
• achieved through satisfactory relations with others (we are not born autonomous)
• dont depend on others for self fulfilment or self esteem
• confidence in who they are - unmoved by critics and flattery
• have inner peace - as they are not searching for acceptance
5. Continued Freshness of Appreciation
• they can appreciate ecstasy pleasure, nature and the goodness of life with a renewed sense
• they experience the awe factor
• they are aware of their blessings and fortunes (health, security)
• appreciate many of the things taken for granted in society, even the simplest of things
• state of gratitude
72
How does Rogers’s theory of the self and self-actualization relate to May’s ideas of “being in the world”?
* They are both person orientated
* people move about with free will, behaviour is not pre determined.
* they differentiate in that May claimed people make choices that result in anxiety and Rogers claimed people moved toward potential
* rogers put personality characteristics as traits that lead to a functioning individual with an importance for positive regard
* May claims these characteristics happen though experience
* they both believe that people have the ability to be authentic in reaching potential
* may strongly believed people are capable of good and evil, unlike rogers
* rogers theory of motivation and belonging are in line with May's
73
```
Allport termed less intensely felt personal dispositions that guide action ______________ dispositions.
Select one:
a. dynamic
b. central
c. cardinal
d. stylistic
```
The correct answer is: stylistic
74
Allport believed that psychoanalytic and learning theories
Select one:
a. are basically homeostatic or reactive.
b. are theories of changing motives.
c. are basically proactive.
d. focus on present moments
The correct answer is: are basically homeostatic or reactive.
75
For Allport, the term “morphogenic” refers to
Select one:
a. patterned properties of the whole organism.
b. propriate strivings common to all people.
c. the organization aspect of the proprium.
d. motivation aspects of proactive behaviour.
The correct answer is: patterned properties of the whole organism.
76
```
When Allport was a young man, he spent a year teaching in Europe. On his return trip home, he visited with his brother, Fayette, and had a memorable meeting with
Select one:
a. Freud.
b. Adler.
c. Jung.
d. Churchill.
```
The correct answer is: Freud.
77
Allport’s view of humanity includes the idea that
Select one:
a. people are motivated primarily to reduce tension.
b. personality is determined by cultural factors.
c. people seek to reduce tensions and also to establish new ones.
d. people are essentially reactive.
The correct answer is: people seek to reduce tensions and also to establish new ones.
78
Allport’s definition of personality included the notion of personality as
Select one:
a. both dynamic and organized.
b. exclusively physiological.
c. determined in early childhood.
d. divided into two major types: introverts and extraverts.
The correct answer is: both dynamic and organized.
79
McCrae and Costa (1996) objected to earlier personality theories as over-relying on
Select one:
a. laboratory evidence.
b. factor analysis.
c. theory.
d. clinical experiences and armchair speculation
The correct answer is: clinical experiences and armchair speculation.
80
```
McCrae and Costa’s Five-Factor Model (FFM) can both _____ and _____ behaviour.
Select one:
a. forecast; foretell
b. predict; explain
c. identify; analyze
d. measure; hypothesize
```
The correct answer is: predict; explain
81
```
According to McCrae and Costa, _____ are defined as the universal raw material of personality capacities and dispositions.
Select one:
a. self-concepts
b. external influences
c. characteristic adaptations
d. basic tendencies
```
The correct answer is: basic tendencies
82
Identify a true statement about characteristic adaptation as a core component of the Five-Factor Theory of Costa and McCrae.
Select one:
a. External factors or the environment have no influence on characteristic adaptations.
b. Characteristic adaptations are stable and enduring over a person’s lifespan.
c. All acquired and specific skills are characteristic adaptations.
d. How quickly a person learns a skill is a characteristic adaptation.
The correct answer is: All acquired and specific skills are characteristic adaptations.
83
```
According to Eysenck’s findings, cold, nonconforming, and aggressive personalities tend to score high on
Select one:
a. extraversion.
b. introversion.
c. neuroticism.
d. psychoticism
```
The correct answer is: psychoticism.
84
Eysenck believed that introverts are characterized by
Select one:
a. low levels of boredom and routine behaviour.
b. higher levels of cortical arousal and low sensory threshold.
c. high levels of activity.
d. low levels of pessimism
The correct answer is: higher levels of cortical arousal and low sensory threshold.
85
```
According to Eysenck, high P scorers are
Select one:
a. punctual and precise.
b. caring and cooperative.
c. social and agreeable.
d. impulsive and hostile.
```
The correct answer is: impulsive and hostile.
86
```
According to the four-level hierarchy of behaviour organization proposed by Eysenck, _____ are at the lowest level of behaviour organization.
Select one:
a. types
b. traits
c. habitual acts
d. specific cognitions
```
The correct answer is: specific cognitions
87
```
Some people are vulnerable to psychiatric illness because they have a genetic or acquired weakness that predisposes them to the illness. This explanation for an illness is what Eysenck called the
Select one:
a. psychoticism factor.
b. hardiness model.
c. biological imperative.
d. diathesis-stress model.
```
The correct answer is: diathesis-stress model.
88
```
The essence of Buss’s theory of personality revolves around adaptive problems and their
Select one:
a. fundamental attribution errors.
b. fundamental situational errors.
c. functional dynamics.
d. solutions or mechanisms.
```
The correct answer is: solutions or mechanisms.
89
```
Buss essentially argues for the five personality dimensions (Big Five) proposed by McCrae and Costa, but with slightly different terminology. Which is not one of Buss’s categories?
Select one:
a. surgency/extraversion/dominance
b. neuroticism/psychoticism
c. agreeableness
d. conscientiousness
```
The correct answer is: neuroticism/psychoticism
90
Evolutionary theory holds that conscious and unconscious thinking, motives, drives, and dreams
Select one:
a. are caused by environmental events alone.
b. are solely caused by biology.
c. are key to motivate people.
d. are ancient.
The correct answer is: are ancient.
91
```
One environmental source of personality differences is what Buss termed _____, by which he meant that childhood experiences make some behavioural strategies more likely than others.
Select one:
a. heritable (genetic) sources
b. early experiential calibration
c. nonadaptive sources
d. maladaptive sources
```
The correct answer is: early experiential calibration
92
Vidya is highly sensitive to criticism. She becomes anxious and nervous whenever her manager points out her mistakes. She cannot control her emotions when she is under stress. Which of the following statements would Buss say is most likely true about Vidya?
Select one:
a. Vidya is a surgent person.
b. Vidya scores low on the behavioural disposition of openness.
c. Vidya has a high level of neuroticism.
d. Vidya has a high level of conscientiousness and agreeableness
The correct answer is: Vidya has a high level of neuroticism.
93
Explain Allport’s concept of functional autonomy and provide an example that is not from the textbook.
Allport's concept of a functional autonomy motive is a motive that came about because of specific tension but then continues due to a completely separate motivation/tension. A functionally autonomous motive is self sustaining; it grows from an earlier motive but functions completely independent (functionally autonomous) from it. Allport uses this term t explain human motives that are unaccounted for otherwise. It is a theory of changing motives, not unchanging ones. In conclusion, the theory holds that human motivation is functionally undefended from the original motivation and it is the explanation for behaviour.
An example is a child who learns to eat with utensils, at first they are motivated by a maturational drive, but then they continue to do so to increase their ability and ease of eating. Another example is an adult who goes on a diet, originally does so to lose the weight but then continues with the diet because it makes them feel better and they have more energy.
94
Discuss Eysenck’s view on the relationship between biology and personality.
Eysenck believed that most of personality is accounted for in biology, with only a small portion being accounted for by the environment. This is partly because he found correlations in personality between identical twins, identical personality factors from people all over the world, and that individuals maintain their personality over time.
Eysenck believed it was biology that accounted for the individual differences in peoples personality. The genetic differences is what leads to structural differences (hormones, Brian structure, neurotransmitters). It is these biological differences that account for the differences in personality factors - —extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. He used temperament, brain measure research and behavioural genetics as evidence for his theory of a biological basis of personality.
* Evidence for the biological basis of personality comes from many different sources, including temperament, behavioural genetics, and brain measure research.
* First, temperament is the biologically based tendency to behave in particular ways from very early in life.
* Secondly, to understand how heredity affects behaviour and personality, psychologists turn to the science of behavioural genetics or the scientific study of the role of heredity in behaviour (Fuller & Thompson, 1960).
* Thirdly, biological aspects of personality are assessed using brain imaging techniques, the two most common forms of which are electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
95
Name and describe Buss’s five personality dimensions.
```
Buss’s model of personality - he believes that behavioural dispositions have adaptive significance and the following 5 personality dimensions provide answers to a range of adaptive problems:
Surgency/extraversion/dominance - involves being able to experience positive emotional states, to interact with one's environment, be sociable and self-confident. A surgent person is a driven, ambitious leader. This is synonymous with “extraversion. Includes a tendency to take risks as well as being able to initiate friendships/relationships.
Agreeableness - willingness to co-operate and help, also to be hostile and aggressive. Some are warm and group oriented but others are selfish and hostile. Agreeable people smooth conflict and form alliances while foster group cohesion. These individuals get along well with others, cooperate and conform to group norms.
Conscientiousness - careful, detail oriented. They are focused individuals and are reliable. Trustworthy, responsible and reliable
Emotional stability (opposite of neuroticism) - how stress, danger and threat are responded to. Some handle these situations well, while others are high strung and do not adapt well. Fear and anxiety are adaptive emotions.
Openness/intellect - ability to solve problems on their own. It is aligned with intelligence and a willingness to try (explore)new things.
```
96
Compare and contrast McCrae and Costa’s theory with that of Eysenck.
- According to Eysenck (he first to suggest that personality had this biological underpinning), personality can be measured – it can be condensed into the existence of three ‘super traits’
- Eysenck's model focuses on mostly biological factors - psychotics, extraversion and neuroticism
- McCare and Costa's - the Big Five has results which are consistent to Eysenck, but proposed the existence of two other personality traits. This theory is better at capturing variability in personality and individual differences -
• extroversion
• neuroticism
• openness to experience
• conscientiousness
• agreeableness - in-part replaces Eysneck’s “psychoticism”
- They both agree on certain traits to be included
- Eysenck believed that traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness should be considered as secondary traits which form psychoticism. Furthermore that openness should be seen as a primary factor of extraversion and not as a separate factor.
- They both rely on taxonomies to generate research
- Eysneck’s 3-factor model has a large theoretical framework to support the model whereas the Big five has subjectivity and misinterpretation around the naming of the factors
- Costa and McCrae agree
- Eysneck argues that factor analysis is not enough to support a model to explain personality.
- the three factor model is better able to explain how environmental influences impact on behaviour
- A common criticism of both models is that the factors are too broad making it hard to draw conclusions or predict behaviour based on the scores of these personality measures.
97
When operant conditioning is used to shape complex behaviour such as playing a piano, reinforcement is applied
Select one:
a. through successive approximations.
b. by the process of punishment.
c. through an intermediary agent.
d. by waiting for the target behaviour to appear, then rewarding it.
The correct answer is: through successive approximations.
98
Skinner believed that science
Select one:
a. is cumulative.
b. is superior to art, philosophy, and literature.
c. is unique because of technology.
d. must begin with the complex and then move to the simple.
The correct answer is: is cumulative.
99
Watson argued that
Select one:
a. the goal of psychology should be the prediction and control of behaviour.
b. psychologists should be primarily concerned with why people act as they do.
c. psychology should be limited to the study of consciousness.
d. psychology is not and cannot be a science
The correct answer is: the goal of psychology should be the prediction and control of behaviour.
100
Skinner believed that passive resistance is most likely to be used
Select one:
a. before the strategy of escape.
b. in conjunction with physical restraint.
c. after escape and revolt have failed.
d. as a form of negative reinforcement.
The correct answer is: after escape and revolt have failed.
101
Skinner would view warfare as an example of
Select one:
a. an aggressive behaviour.
b. a maladaptive remnant of cultural evolution.
c. a maladaptive negative reinforcer.
d. a behaviour independent of cultural evolution
The correct answer is: a maladaptive remnant of cultural evolution
102
Unlike Skinner’s behavioural analysis, Bandura’s social cognitive theory
Select one:
a. rejects the notion of goal-directed behaviour.
b. discounts the importance of reinforcement.
c. recognizes the influence of chance encounters.
d. downplays the effects of higher mental processes on behaviour.
The correct answer is: recognizes the influence of chance encounters.
103
In Bandura’s view, vicarious experiences are likely to have their strongest effect on self-efficacy when an observer
Select one:
a. has a high level of physiological arousal.
b. sees a person of equal ability succeed.
c. has a high level of locus of control.
d. has extensive experience with an activity.
The correct answer is: sees a person of equal ability succeed.
104
```
Like most people, Madison relies on other people such as the police, the fire department, and mechanics to exercise indirect control over her life. Bandura calls this situation
Select one:
a. proxy agency.
b. external reliance.
c. collective efficacy.
d. personal efficacy.
```
The correct answer is: proxy agency.
105
```
Sophia performs poorly in her science test. When her parents question her poor performance, she blames her relatives and neighbours for low grades because they visited her home the day before her science test. In this case, Bandura would say that Sophia is reducing the responsibility of her poor performance through
Select one:
a. displacement.
b. palliative comparisons.
c. diffusion.
d. moral justification.
```
The correct answer is: displacement.
106
With regard to learning, unlike Skinner, Bandura believes that
Select one:
a. reinforcement does not facilitate learning.
b. reinforcement is essential to learning.
c. performance is the basic datum of psychological science.
d. learning can occur in the absence of a behaviour.
The correct answer is: learning can occur in the absence of a behaviour.
107
```
Mischel’s early research led him to believe that behaviour is mostly a function of
Select one:
a. chance and fortuitous events.
b. the situation.
c. relatively stable personal traits.
d. a person’s motivation.
```
The correct answer is: the situation
108
```
Which of the following is not one of Mischel and Shoda’s cognitive-affective units?
Select one:
a. a sense of self-efficacy
b. encoding strategies
c. goals and values
d. expectancies and beliefs
```
The correct answer is: a sense of self-efficacy
109
Rotter insisted that an adequate theory of personality must take into consideration the assumption that people are
Select one:
a. capable of anticipating events.
b. motivated primarily by drive reduction.
c. controlled in the same manner as animals.
d. only motivated by unconscious mental processes.
The correct answer is: capable of anticipating events.
110
According to Rotter, the behaviour potential in any situation is a function of
Select one:
a. expectancy.
b. reinforcement value.
c. both expectancy and reinforcement value.
d. neither expectancy nor reinforcement value.
The correct answer is: both expectancy and reinforcement value.
111
Which of the following statements is true about Kelly’s fixed-role therapy?
Select one:
a. Roles should be written in first person rather than third person.
b. Clients should be excluded from the process of determining roles.
c. Core roles should be introduced in the early stages of the therapy.
d. Clients should select the goal of the therapy.
The correct answer is: Clients should select the goal of the therapy
112
Before developing fixed-role therapy, Kelly used an unusual procedure for modifying constructs. This procedure involved
Select one:
a. encouraging clients to act out dreams.
b. offering clients “preposterous interpretations” to explain their behaviour.
c. using himself as the model to be imitated in therapy.
d. refusing to see clients for six months after the initial therapy session.
The correct answer is: offering clients “preposterous interpretations” to explain their behaviour
113
```
According to Kelly, facts
Select one:
a. determine a person’s future.
b. are determined by past events.
c. dictate our view of the world.
d. carry meaning for us to discover
```
The correct answer is: carry meaning for us to discover.
114
Kelly’s fragmentation corollary
Select one:
a. assumes the rigidity of behaviour.
b. accounts for all behaviours not explained by his other corollaries.
c. is his fundamental postulate.
d. accounts for the fact that people can hold seemingly incompatible beliefs.
The correct answer is: accounts for the fact that people can hold seemingly incompatible beliefs.
115
The purpose of Kelly’s Rep test is to
Select one:
a. reconstruct obsolete personal constructs.
b. learn how clients construe significant people in their lives.
c. provide the therapist with a differential diagnosis of patients.
d. uncover previously repressed conflicts
The correct answer is: learn how clients construe significant people in their lives.
116
```
Kelly’s view of human nature was essentially
Select one:
a. optimistic.
b. pessimistic.
c. deterministic.
d. causal.
```
The correct answer is: optimistic.
117
What are the similarities and differences between Skinner’s theory and that of Rotter in terms of how learning relates to personality?
B.F. Skinner explained that our learning environment is the reason behind our personal differences in behaviour, whereas Rotter felt that personality is a representation of the contact between a person and their environment.
Skinner suggested we learn patterns of behaviours by either rewards or punishment (positive and negative reinforcers), or indirectly by way of observational learning. Rotter felt that it was necessary to consider both the individual and the the environment to understand behaviour and that by changing the environment can change a persons way of thinking, thereby changing their behaviour.
They differ in that Rotter believed people are motivated by life goals for Skinner it was to avoid punishment. Skinner believed it is human nature to behave in such a way to receive rewards and in order to do so develop develop personality traits that are positive.
Skinner argued that we respond to every kind of reinforcement, and that our behavior and personality traits can be shaped and controlled by the society. In addition to this, Skinner implied that if we want our negative traits to be changed into positive ones, we must changed our environment first
Rotter believed people are driven to pursue positive reinforcement and to avert negative reinforcement. In his theory personality and behaviorism are not connected by our physiological instincts and drives.
118
Define Bandura’s concept of triadic reciprocal causation.
In Bandura's social cognitive theory he explains that a person's behaviour is influenced by their environment and vice versa, which implements the concept of triadic reciprocal causation. It suggests the environment causes changes in the persons behaviour and the behaviour changes the environment. So, not only does the environment influence the person's thinking, but the person's behaviour also influences the environment.
There are three main factors in triadic reciprocal causation:
1. Personal factors (thoughts, feelings, etc.),
2. Behaviour,
3. External environment.
Two important environmental forces in the triadic model are chance influences and future events.
Bandura's social cognitive theory explains psychological functioning in terms of triadic reciprocal causation. It assumes that human action is a result of an interaction between the environment, behaviour, and personal factors (cognitive factors such as memory, thoughts, anticipation). Because people possess these capacities and can utilize them, then they have the capacity to select/ change their environment. Cognition partially determines which environmental events people attend to, value placed on them and how these events are organized for future. For Bandura the environment influences a persons behaviour and vice versa. The environment influences a persons thinking, but behaviour also influences the environment.
119
Explain Rotter’s social learning theory.
Rotter believed that behaviour is determined by an interaction of personality and the environment. This theory has 5 basic hypothesis that allowed Rotter to predict human behaviour
1. humans interact with their meaningful environments - People’s reaction to environmental stimuli depends on the meaning or importance that they attach to an event
2. human personality is learned - personality is not set or determined at any particular age of development; instead, it can be changed or modified as long as people are capable of learning.
3. personality has a basic unity - people’s personalities possess relative stability
4. motivation is goal directed - explaining behaviour is woven in people’s expectations that their behaviors are advancing them toward goals
5. people are capable of anticipating events - they use their perceived movement in the direction of the anticipated event as a criterion for evaluating reinforcers.
120
State Kelly’s philosophical position of constructive alternativism.
According to Kelly, all people (including those who build personality theories) anticipate events by the meanings or interpretations they place on those events (Stevens & Walker, 2002). These meanings or interpretations are called constructs. People exist in a real world, but their behavior is shaped by their gradually expanding interpretation or construction of that world. They construe the world in their own way, and every construction is open to revision or replacement. People are not victims of circumstances, because alternative constructions are always available. Kelly called this philosophical position constructive alternativism.
The basic postulate assumes that people are constantly active and that their activity is guided by the way they anticipate events.
Kelly assumed that the universe (which is constantly changing) functions as an integral unit, with all its parts interacting precisely. People have thoughts and they are striving to make sense out of this continually changing world. Kelly assumed that all of our interpretations of the universe are subject to revision or replacement (constructive alternativism)
The philosophy of Kelly is that an accumulation of facts does not add to truth - it assumes that facts cab only be looked at from different perspectives.A persons interpretation of events is more important than the events themselves - interpretations have meaning in the dimension of time - what is valid at one time can become false when construed differently at a later time. His philosophy was that the person, not the facts are the key to the persons future. Kelly's philosophy assumes that peoples interpretation of a unified ever changing world is what constitutes their reality.
