All Sociologists

Question 0

Aldridge

Answer 0

Social constructionist
For its followers, scientology is a religion, despite several govs denying it legal status as a religion and sought to ban it
This shows that definitions of religion can be contested and are influenced by this who have power to define the situation

Question 1

Abercrombie

Answer 1

Criticises Marx 
Religion does not necessarily function effectively as ideology to control the population.
In pre capitalist society, while Christianity was a major element of ruling class ideology, it only had limited impact on the peasantry.

Question 2

Althusser

Answer 2

Religion is promoted by the bourgeoise in order to pass on the dominant ideological state apparatus

Question 3

Armstrong

Answer 3

As Catholicism and Orthodox Judaism forbid women priests - this is proof of marginalisation.
Early religions placed women at the centre (mother goddesses, fertility, priesthood) yet the rise in monotheistic religions were mostly male

Question 4

Bauman

Answer 4

Postmodern
There is a ‘crisis of meaning’ in our society
Secularisation led to a decline in meta narratives
Therefore new age movements have more of a place now than ever - the vacuum is being filled by new and diverse types of religiosity

Question 6

Bellah - golden age

Answer 6

As our postmodern society is individualistic, people do not feel the social pressures of the ‘golden age’ to attend church

Question 7

Bloch

Answer 7

Marxist
Religion is an expression of ‘the principle of hope’, our dreams of a better life, or utopia.
Images of utopia can deceive people with promises of rewards in heaven.
However, this may help people to see what needs to be changed in this world - if combined with effective political leadership, can bring about social change

Question 7

Berger

Answer 7

Pentecostalism acts as the ‘functional equivalent’ to the Protestant ethic

Question 8

Beyer

Answer 8

The impact of globalisation:

• marginalisation: religion no longer in politics or public life
• particularism: religion used by groups who feel threatened by globalisation - sense of identity (fundamentalism)
• universalism: results in understanding of common values between religions (religious environmentalism, protecting a god created world)

Question 10

Brown

Answer 10

Women’s attendance in church has declined due to the pressures of home, work, and family emotions as a result of their triple shift

Question 11

Bruce - loss of importance

Answer 11

Science and rational explanations are undermining religion, with less place in our postmodern society
Religion becomes less important as some of its previous functions are taken over (the moral support from priests now comes from therapists)

Question 12

Bruce - ethnicity

Answer 12

Cultural transition
To south Asians who immigrated to the uk, their religion acted as a support mechanism, allowing them to establish their faiths and share their culture

Question 13

Bruce - social change

Answer 13

Studies the relationship between religion and social change, comparing the role of religiously inspired protest movements in America: civil rights and the new Christian Right

Question 13

Comte

Answer 13

Science is the final stage in the development of human thought - modern society would become dominated by science, not religion

Question 14

Daly

Answer 14

Feminist

Christianity is a patriarchal myth, it eliminates other goddess religions

Question 14

Crockett

Answer 14

In 1850, more than 40% of adults in Britain attended church on Sundays
This contributed to the view of the 19th century as the ‘golden age’ of religion

Question 15

Bruce - NRMs

Answer 15

Men are more interested in NRMs that advocate elitist knowledge 
Women are more interested in new science, ecology, and spirituality 
Cults are primarily middle class as they fulfil spiritual needs for people who have little financial pressure

Question 17

Engels

Answer 17

Marxist
Although religion inhibits change by disguising inequality, it can also change the status quo and encourage social change

Question 17

Davie - against secularisation

Answer 17

Believing without belonging
People may not attend church because of their lifestyle, even though they believe in god
Church attendance does not tell anything about belief

Question 18

Eisenstaedt

Answer 18

Contradicts weber

Capitalism occurred in catholic countries like Italy way before the Protestant reformation

Question 19

Gramsci

Answer 19

Domination of ruling class ideology as hegemony - no one questions common sense, therefore no one questions their right to rule

Question 20

Heelas

Answer 20

Postmodern

religion fills the void that comes with lack of community in our society

Question 20

Holm

Answer 20

The devaluation of women in religion:

• segregation by gender
• women’s participation restricted: not allowed to preach, participate in rituals etc
• taboos about menstruation, pregnancy, and childbirth as polluting

Question 20

Davie - ethnic minorities

Answer 20

Identification with a religious organisation is important to those from west and South Asia in the UK because it gives a sense of cultural identity and a feeling of belonging

Question 21

El Saadawi

Answer 21

Religion is not the direct cause of women's subordination Male domination and the interpretation of religion leads to the oppression of women Rules regarding sexuality and dress are not associated with religion, but with men's increasing control over it Women had a high status in ancient religion Islam developed to be patriarchal - the men used religion to control women

Question 22

Glock and Stark

Answer 22

The gender difference in NRMs is because deprivation (social, physical, mental) is disproportionately experienced by women

Question 23

Greeley

Answer 23

Caring for the family increases religiosity

Question 24

Johal

Answer 24

In a multi-faith society, religious identity has become of key importance to members of ethnic minorities

Question 25

Kautsky

Answer 25

Criticises Weber He overestimates the role of ideas and underestimates economic factors in bringing capitalism into being Capitalism preceded rather than followed Calvinism

Question 25

Lehmann

Answer 25

How Christianity developed globally: Christianity accompanied colonialism and was imposed on indigenous populations by force. It gained a popular following: 80 million Pentecostalists Pentecostalism has an ability to blend and plug into local beliefs, it hasn't necessarily replaced old beliefs but creates new religious forms 

Question 26

Lenin

Answer 26

``` Religion as ideology The ruling class use religion cynically to manipulate the masses and keep them from attempting to overthrow the ruling class by creating a 'mystical fog' that obscures reality ```

Question 28

Lyon

Answer 28

Postmodern Disneyfication of religion - it has become too diluted and therefore has lost its integrity with its lack of commitment and obligation

Question 28

Lowy

Answer 28

Neo Marxist Questions Marx's view that religion always legitimises social inequality Sees liberation theology as an example of religiously inspired social change

Question 29

Lyotard

Answer 29

Postmodern - the world is not defined by a metanarrative due to explanations from science Life is now uncertain, fast paced, and chaotic Organised religion has become less influential

Question 31

Maduro

Answer 31

Neo marxist | "Religion is often one of the main available channels to bring about a social revolution"

Question 32

Marshall

Answer 32

Agrees with Weber | Both material and cultural factors need to be present for capitalism to emerge

Question 33

Martin

Answer 33

Questions he 'golden age of religion' in the nineteenth century As the church was the focal point of communities, people attended church in masses for social reasons rather than for expressing their belief

Question 34

Marx

Answer 34

"Religion is the opium of the people" It dulls the pain of alienation and oppression, giving a purpose to their hard work Social change is inhibited due to this state of 'false consciousness', continuing their oppression

Question 36

Miller

Answer 36

Women have a greater interest in religions and a stronger personal commitment to it

Question 37

Modood

Answer 37

Most ethnic minorities in the UK are more religious than white groups Pakistani Muslims in the UK identified themselves primarily as Muslim rather than British or Pakistani Many young Muslims have a deeper knowledge of Islam than their parents - a larger amount of young people agree with sharia law

Question 39

Parsons - secularisation

Answer 39

Although the church may have lost its functions and become disengaged from the state and politics, religion can still be significant in everyday life and encourage shared values

Question 40

Saeed

Answer 40

Found evidence for a decline in religious practice among Asians in the UK

Question 41

Nanda

Answer 41

``` Hinduism explaining prosperity of Indian middle class (85% Hindu) the rise of a new Hindu 'ultra nationalism' Globalisation: it pharmaceuticals, biotechnology industries - suggests they'd be less religious This isn't the case, with urban middle class educated Indians becoming more religious ```

Question 44

Simone de Beauvior

Answer 44

Religion is exploitative and oppressive Images of gender in western religion deceive women into thinking they're equal when they're not Women are portrayed as 'nearer to god' by religious imagery - this promotes the idea that if women suffer they will receive equality in heaven This results in women submitting to inferiority in order to gain in the afterlife

Question 45

Simone de Beauvoir more

Answer 45

``` Religion exists to provide an explanation for women's second class status The teachings of religions, backed up by divine authority, supports male dominance Women are assigned the special position of 'mother' which blinds women to the inequality in religion and society ```

Question 46

Tawney

Answer 46

Criticises Weber Technological change caused capitalism The bourgeoisie adopted Calvinist beliefs to legitimate their pursuit of economic gain

Question 50

Wilson

Answer 50

Bums on Pews - church attendance, and he number of baptisms and church marriages are decreasing with time This evidence proves that society has become secular

Question 52

Watson

Answer 52

We need to be careful to not make sweeping statements about how religions treat women - veiling can be liberating

Question 53

Weber

Answer 53

Correctly predicted desacralisation in his theory of disenchantment, with magic and myth less important in postmodern society

Question 55

Woodhead - evangelical

Answer 55

Feminist Respects the roles in the home - being evangelical can be empowering - men are taught to respect women, as they believe in gender neutral love from god

Question 55

White (Ellen)

Answer 55

7th day Adventists | Many NRMs are established by women

Question 56

Woodhead - church's view of women

Answer 56

The exclusion of women from the catholic priesthood is evidence of the church's deep unease about the emancipation of women generally

Question 59

Woodhead - NRMs

Answer 59

Women join NRMs to express religiosity and individuality, rejecting traditional conservative sexist views of the established church

Question 60

Woodhead - veil

Answer 60

Feminist The veil is a symbol against oppression, allowing women not to be objectified for their looks - expresses the postmodern view of religion as a sense of identity

Question 62

Yinger

Answer 62

Functional definition of religion Religion defined as the functions it provides for individuals: answering ultimate questions about the meaning of life, and what happens when we die

Question 63

Butler

Answer 63

cultural hybridity, taking the best of British and own culture - make own identity

Question 64

Davie - women

Answer 64

women's proximity to birth and death bring them closer to the ultimate questions

Question 65

Gross

Answer 65

Post patriarchal buddism is popular with both genders

Question 66

Wallis

Answer 66

Categorises the NRMs into three groups: world accommodating which do not have an opinion on wider society, world affirming which accepts and uses society's norms and values, and world rejecting which is highly critical of the outside world. 

Question 67

Barker

Answer 67

points out how difficult it is to categorise NRMs due to the great diversity among them. She distinguishes them by the traditions they come from, yet explains the problem of this in that some sects and cults are more developed and established than others, showing that S+Bs cycle is relevant in showing problems

Question 68

Popper

Answer 68

Science should aim to falsify their theory through rigorous testing - possibility that things with change (all swans are white) Science is not completely scientific as few scientists rigorously test it in this way He rejects verification ism in favour of falsification ism as the defining feature of science and argues that on this definition, much sociology is unscientific, but that a scientific sociology is possible in principle 

Question 69

Merton

Answer 69

science is important, supported by various parts of social system (ed, health, tec)

Question 70

Kuhn

Answer 70

Science has Paradigms - difficult for scientists to go against theories Scientific revolution - shift in way of thinking, scientists now follow this person's ideas Not scientific - different paradigms, ways of thinking - unscientific He argues that sociology can only become a science once all sociologists adopt a single shared paradigm

Question 71

Mannheim

Answer 71

One sided world views - ideological and utopian thought  Utopian - equality and getting rid of oppression  Evident in authorities and government in developed societies

Question 72

Gouldner

Answer 72

Value free sociology is impossible and undesirable. Why would we want to be scientific? There's nothing wrong with subjectivity

Question 73

Baudrillard

Answer 73

People have a sense of identity out the products they consume - sold not just for function, but associated with different lifestyles and personalities. People pick-and-mix media imagery in building identity.

Question 74

Strinati

Answer 74

Boundaries are blurred between the traditionally 'high' and 'low' culture. Mixes of characteristics that would not commonly be together 

Question 75

Casanova

Answer 75

Liberation theology played an important part in resisting state terror and bringing about democracy in Latin American countries, most of which now have democratically elected governments Catholicism continues to defend democracy and human rights, achieved by liberation theology, despite becoming more conservative