ALL THE THINGS! Flashcards
(381 cards)
1
Q
What are the 3 functions of the lymphatic system?
A
return fluid/plasma proteins to blood
return lymphocytes to recirculating pool
add antibodies formed in lymph nodes
2
Q
What is lymph?
A
ultrafiltrate of plasma
3
Q
What are the 3 types of lymphatic vessels?
A
Capillaries, vessels, ducts
4
Q
What are the characteristics of lymphatic capillaries?
A
thin walled, incomplete basement membrane, anchoring filaments, end in extracellular spaces
5
Q
What are the characteristics of lymphatic vessels?
A
larger lumen than blood vessels, thick walls, flow depends on pressure
6
Q
What are the characteristics of lymphatic ducts?
A
main ducts are right lymphatic and thoracic
empty in R/L venous angles
7
Q
What is diffuse lymphoid tissue?
A
not delineated from connective tissue, made up reticular fibers, found in lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, MALT in GI
8
Q
What are lymphoid nodules?
A
dense lymphoid tissue found in the cortex of lymph nodes, splenic white pulp, tonsils, and MALT
9
Q
What are primary lymphoid nodules?
A
rounded, tightly packed with small lymphocytes.
10
Q
Primary lymphoid nodules house B or T cells?
A
T cells
11
Q
What are secondary lymphoid nodules?
A
spherical cluster of larger pale stained cells surrounded by a small lymphocyte cap. Have germinal centers.
12
Q
Secondary lymphoid nodules house B or T cells? Where?
A
B cells in the germinal centers
13
Q
What is the function of lymph nodes?
A
filter lymph and lymphocyte production (immune response)
14
Q
Where are lymph nodes found?
A
found in mesentery, axilla, groin
15
Q
The cortex of a lymph node has what characteristics?
A
an outer portion filled with lymphoid nodules and a deep portion of diffuse lymphoid tissue known as the Thymus dependent are filled with T-lymphocytes
16
Q
The medulla of a lymph node has what characteristics?
A
consists of lymphoid tissue with irregular anastomosing medullary cords, which form spaces called medullary sinuses. Mainly have B-cells
17
Q
What is the pathway taken by lymph as it passes on its way through a lymph node?
A
Affertent lymphatic vessel to subscapular sinus to peritrabechular sinus to medullary sinus to efferent lymphatic vessel
18
Q
WHat are the characteristics of a lymphatic sinus in a lymph node?
A
lined with dendritic cells and macrophages, with a permeable wall. Facilitate the macrophages.
19
Q
What forms the reticular meshwork in lymphatic sinuses in lymph nodes?
A
dendritic cells and macrophages
20
Q
What are medullary cords?
A
aggregations of diffuse lymphoid tissue, B-lymphocytes, and macrophages.
21
Q
What are medullary sinuses?
A
large, tortuous, channels that anastomose. They are between trabeculae and cords
22
Q
What are postcapillary venules?
A
they are traversed by small lymphocytes from the blood and they represent the entry way from blood to lymph
23
Q
What is another name for postcapillary venules?
A
high endothelial venule (HEV)
24
Q
What are some characteristics of the spleen>
A
complex blood filtration system made up of large amounts of lymphoid tissue. Made up of white and red pulp
25
What are the functions of the spleen?
storage and destruction of blood cells and platelets
production of lymphocytes
iron metabolism
immune response
26
Describe splenic white pulp
lymphoid tissue nodules that form peri-arterial lymphoid sheath (PALS) around central arteries, which pass inti pukp from trabeculae
27
Describe splenic red pulp
rich in blood and contains splenic sinusoids and splenic cords, which are supported by a reticular meshwork
28
What are the splenic marginal zones?
area between the two pulps. Harbors blood-borne antigens
29
Through which structures does blood flow on its way through the spleen?
Splenic artery to trabecular arteries to central arteries to penicillar arterioles to splenic sinus to pulp vein to trabecular vein to splenic vein
30
What is a splenic sinusoid?
they possess lingitudinal slits that resemble a leaky barrel for blood elements to pass through
31
What is a splenic cord?
found in the red pulp of the spleen between the sinusoids, consisting of fibrils and connective tissue cells with a large population of monocytes and macrophages.
32
What is another name for splenic cords?
Cords of Billroth
33
What are the functions of the Thymus?
T-cell maturation and immunologic response
34
Describe how the Thymus is organized into lobes and lobules
thymus has two lobes, which extend into lobules, which then have a cortex and medulla
35
What are the characteristics of the thymic cortex?
has an outer cortex with lymphoblasts
cortex is smaller in the middle and houses small lymphocytes near the medulla.
lower mitotic rate in inner cortex.
Has naive T-cells
36
What are some characteristics of the thymic medulla?
continuous between lobules, less dense than cortex, and contains Hassal's corpuscles. Has selected immunocompetent T-Cells
37
Describe how blood vessels are arranged in the thymus
arteries form arterioles which follow the corticomedullary junction
capillaries go up and down into cortex and medulla, and the cortical capillaries drain into corticomedullary postcapillary venules
38
What are the components of the blood-thymus barrier?
made up of a continuous endothelium with a basement membrane, a perivascular space (macrophages present), and a reticular epithelium with a basement membrane
39
What is the blood-thymus barrier?
it regulates entrance into the blood from the thymus to create the needed environment for T-cell development
40
How many types of thymic reticular cells are there and what are their general functions?
6 types that secrete cytokines for thymocyte migration and they also produce hormonal factors for T-cell maturation (Thymosin)
41
Which thymic reticular cells are found in the cortex?
Types I, II, III
42
Which thymic reticular cells are found in the medulla?
Types IV, V, VI
43
What is the function of Type I cells?
barrier to isolate developing T_cells
44
What is the function of Type II cells?
compartmentilization of the cortex, and positive selection
45
What is the function of Type III cells?
barrier between cortex and medulla (cortical side)
46
What is the function of Type IV cells?
barrier between cortex and medulla (medullary side)
47
What is the function of Type V cells?
framework of the medulla and negative selection
48
What is the function of Type VI cells?
These are Hassal's Corpuscles: concentric lamellae that may produce cytokines to program thymocytes
49
What are the two main divisions of the pituitary gland?
adenohypophysis (ant)
| neurohypophysis (post)
50
What are the parts of the ant. pituitary?
pars disatlis, tuberalis, and intermedia
51
What are the parts of the post. pituitary?
pars nervosa, median eminence, and infundibular stalk
52
How is the pituitary gland developed?
infundibulum invaginates from the floor of the brain and forms the infundibular stalk and the pars nervosa
53
What role does Rathke's pouch play in development of the pituitary?
it forms the oral ectoderm; forms the adenohypophysis
54
Describe the blood supply of the pituitary gland
inferior hypophyseal arteries supply the neurohypophysis
superior hypophyseal arteries supply the capillary plexus in the pars tuberalis
55
How does blood flow from the superior hypophyseal arteries?
sup hypo a. to 1st plexus to hypophyseal vein to 2nd plexus
capillaries reach from the plexus to the median eminence and infundibular stalk
primary plexus drains to the hypophyseal veins, then into sinusoidal capillaries in the pars distalis (2nd plexus)
56
What are the 3 main cell types of the pars distalis and what percentage does each make up?
A - acidophils 40%
B - basophils 10%
C - chromophobes 50%
57
Describe chromophobes
degranulated, supporting cells
58
What do acidophils secrete?
prolactin and GH
59
What do basophils secrete?
TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH
60
What are the hormones of the ant pituitary?
The Pirate FLAG
```
TSH
Prolactin
FSH
LH
ACTH
GH
```
61
What does prolactin do?
causes progesterone secretion by corpus luteum, mammary gland development, and milk formation
62
What does Growth Hormone do?
body growth, stimulates insulin like GF1 (IGF - 1) for muscle growth
63
What does TSH do?
thyroid hormone production/secretion
64
What does FSH do?
ovarian follicle stimulation, estrogen secretion, sertoli cell stimulation (sperm)
65
What does LH do?
corpus luteum formation, ovulation, progesterone secretion, leydig cell stimulation (testosterone secretion)
66
What does ACTH do?
gluco and gonadocorticoid secretion from the adrenal cortex
67
What are the releasing and inhibiting hormones produced in the hypothalamus and what are their functions?
TRH - stimulates prolactin/TSH (antagonist is dopamine)
GHRH - stimulates GH (antagonist is somatostatin)
GRH - at low frequency stimulates FSH and at high frequency stimulates LH
68
Describe the pars intermedia
poorly developed, produces MSH (melanocyte production)
69
Describe the pars tuberalis
forms the collar around the infundibular stalk, produces gonadotropin
70
Name the components of the neurohypophysis
made up of pituicytes and cell axons from the hypothalamus
hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract arises from the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. contains Herring bodies which are hormone accumulations in the axons
71
What are the hormones in the pars nervosa? Name the specific locations
Oxytocin from paraventricular nucleus
Vasopressin from supraoptic
Neurophysin is a carrier protein for oxytocin and ADH
72
What does oxytocin do?
uterine contraction, milk ejection reflex
73
What does vasopressin do?
produces ADH which allows for water reabsorption in the kidney; raises BP
74
What does neurophysin do?
is a carrying protein for oxytocin and ADH; prevents diffusion out of axons
75
What are endocrine glands? Examples?
ductless and secrete product into bloodstream
adrenal, thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, and pineal
76
What are exocrine glands? Examples?
attached by duct to surface where it is emptied
sweat, salivary, sebaceous, and mammary glands
77
What glands have both Endo and Exo functions?
gonads and pancreas
78
What is a hormone?
chemical transported by blood or body fluid that has specific regulatory effect on cells away from its origin
79
What are the two cell types of the pineal gland?
Pinealocytes
| Glial cells
80
What do pinealocytes do?
main cell type in pineal gland arranged in clusters; release melatonin
81
What do pineal glial cells do?
they are interstitial cells, scattered between pinealocytes, that resemble astrocytes (support)
82
How does melatonin help control the circadian clock?
during darkness, it is released, and it acts on the hypothalamus and pituitary to induce sleepiness. also inhibits GnRH, which reduces FSH/LH and in turn decreases gonadal steroid production
83
What blocks melatonin?
light and sympathetic blocking agents inhibit melatonin
84
What is brain sand?
aka corpora arenacea; calcium/magnesium phosphates and carbonates that illustrate the midline of the brain radiographically (look like clumps)
secreted by pinealocytes
85
Describe the location and organization of the adrenal gland
located at the sup pole of each kidney
triangular bodies are covered by a capsule and CT trabeculae that projects into each gland.
Has a large cortex and a small medulla
86
What are the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex? (In order)
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis
87
Describe the arrangement of the zona glomerulosa
small, ovoid cell groups surrounded by fenestrated sinusoids
88
Describe the arrangement of the zona fasciculata
thickets layer of large, parallel cords of cells that are separated by fenestrated sinusoids
89
Describe the arrangement of the zona reticularis
small cells anastomosing cells separated by fenestrated sinusoids
90
What is the main hormone produced by the adrenal cortex?
corticosteroids (gluco and mineralocorticoids)
also produces androgens
91
Zona glomerulosa produces
mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) which increases BP
stimulated by angiotensin II
92
Zona fasciculata produces
glucocorticoids (cortisol), for carb metabolims, protein metab, lipid metablolism, and inflammation
stimulated by ACTH
93
Zona reticularis produces
androgens (DHEA), e.g. testosterone precursor
stimulated by ACTH
94
The adrenal medula produces what?
catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine
95
Describe the blood supply of the adrenal gland
supplied by suprarenal arteries that enter at the hilum and branch into capsular plexus
medulla also supplied by medullary artery
96
After entering the hilum and branching into the capsular plexus, how is blood supplied by the suprarenal arteries?
capsular capillaries supply the capsule
fenerstrated cortical capillaries go through the glomerulosa and form a network in the reticularis; these capillaries drain into medullary venous sinusoids in the medulla
97
The adrenal medulla receives dual blood supply how?
medulla gets dual blood supply; venous from medullary sinusoids and arterial from medullary arteries
98
What is the origin and function of chromaffin cells>
arranged around blood vessels and are modified postsynaptic sympathetic neurons without axons
secrete catecholamines in the adrenal medulla
99
Describe the location and organization of the thyroid gland?
two lobes on each side of trachea connected by an isthmus
has a thin fibro-elastic capsule that forms trabeculae that divide the gland into lobules
each functional unit of the gland is called a follicle and they are surrounded by fenestrted capillaries
100
Describe the thyroid follicle
an epithelial sac lined by a single layer of follicular epithelium
consists of colloid, gel like material thats main part is thyroglobulin (inactive thyroid hormone storage)
follicular cells produce TH, also contact the colloid and contain lysosomes
parafollicular cells also present that dont reach the lumen and produce calcitonin ( C-Cells)
101
What are the steps involved in the synthesis, storage, uptake and secretion of thyroid hormone (TH)
1. synthesis of thyroglobulin
2. uptake of Iodide
3. oxidation of Iodide
4. T3/T4 liberation
102
What does thyroid hormone do?
regulates cell metabolism (growth and development)
103
What are symptoms of HYPOthyroidism?
cretinism in children and myxedema in adults (T3/T4 can't stimulate HGH)
104
What are the symptoms of HYPERthyroidism?
stimulates more T3/T4 production, metabolism and weight down
105
Describe the location of the parathyroid glands
two glands on each side behind the thyroid lobes
small oval glands with thin capsule
cells appear as a dense mass in anastomosing cords, and many fenestrated capillaries between the cords
106
What cell type is responsible for producing parathyroid hormone?
chief cells: principal cells that produce PTH (increase blood Ca level)
107
What is the function of parathyroid hormone?
antagonist to calcitonin
PTH regulates calcium concentration in blood and bone
108
In the endocrine pancreas, what are islets of Langerhans?
large, pale staining areas supported by reticular tissue
have irregular anastomosing cords and cell clumps separated by capillaries
109
What are the 3 cell types found in the islets of Langerhans?
Alpha
Beta
Delta
110
What do Alpha cells do?
secrete glucagon
insulin antagonist, stimulates glucose release into bloodstream; increase blood glucose
111
What do Beta cells do?
Secrete insulin
stimulates glucose uptake
112
What do Delta cells do?
secrete somatostatin
inhibits Alpha and Beta cells
113
How does the liver receive venous blood?
from the intestines via the portal vein
114
How does the liver receive arterial blood?
from circulation via the hepatic artery
115
Where do the hepatic veins drain>
directly into the IVC
116
What are the main functions of the liver?
metabolizes digestion products from the intestine
detoxification of toxins
bile production/release
amino acid/protein production (plasma proteins)
carb storage and glucose release
lipid metabolism
vitamins/iron storage and conversion (Vit A,D,K)
hormone synthesis
117
Describe the classical liver lobule
hexagonal with central vein in center and portal triad at each corner
118
List the structures within the portal triad/area
portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct
| sometimes contains a lymphatic vessel
119
Where does the portal triad enter the liver?
enters the porta hepatis on the inferior surface of the liver
120
What is the sequence of blood vessels in the liver?
Blood enters sinusoids from terminal branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein (More portal blood). Blood then reaches the central vein (arterial and venous) from the sinusoids
121
After entering the central vein, how does blood flow through the liver?
drains into sublobular vein then to hepatic vein and finally to IVC
122
What are the two cell types that line the hepatic sinusoids?
Endothelial cells
| Kupffer cells
123
Describe the endothelial cells of the hepatic sinusoids
have large fenestrations and a discontinuous basement membrane (no filtration barrier)
124
Describe Kupffer cells of the hepatic sinusoids
derived from monocytes (phagocytic) are between the endothelial cells and destroy bacteria
125
What is the Space of Disse? (Not the function)
the perisinusoidal space between endothelial cells and hepatocytes
numerous microvilli on hepatocytes increase SA for absorption
126
What is the function of the Space of Disse?
is an area for proteins to be absorbed from the sinusoids into the hepatocytes
127
Hepatic stellate cells in the Space of Disse help store what?
Vitamin A
128
In the Space of Disse, what can the Hepatic stellate cells differentiate into? What will they produce?
into myofibroblasts and produce collagen (fibrosis and cirrhosis)
129
Describe the structure of the bile canaliculus
little canals between hepatocytes
tight junctions seal these canaliculi
130
What is the function of the bile canaliculus?
bile is actively secreted into these canaliculi from hepatocytes
131
In the liver, canaliculi join to form what that drain where?
form intrahepatic ductules (canals of Hering) that drain into interlobular ducts in the portal areas
132
How is the hepatic duct formed?
interlobular ducts join main ducts to form the hepatic duct.
133
When the cystic duct joins the hepatic duct, what is formed? Where does this carry bile to?
common bile duct is formed which carries bile to the duodenum
134
The gallbladder is attached to the liver. What kind of bile does it receive and through which duct?
diluted bile from the hepatic duct
135
What kind of epithelium makes up the walls of the gallbladder?
simple columnar epithelium with microvilli (has many folds)
136
The lamina propria of the gallbladder is full of what kinds of capillaries?
fenestrated capillaries
137
The fibromuscular layer of the gallbladder discharges what?
bile
138
What does the gallbladder even do?
concentrate and store bile
139
Which cells secrete cholecystokinin (CCK)?
enteroendocrine cells of the small intestine
140
What happens when CCK is released by the enteroendocrine cells of the small intestine?
the muscular layer of the gallbladder contracts and releases bile into the duodenum
141
What is the composition and function of saliva?
colorless liquid containing water, mucin, carbs, protein and inorganic compounds. Also contains enzymes amylase, maltase, and lipase to digest carbs and lipids
142
Which glands produce saliva?
salivary glands that include the parotid, submandibular and sublingual
143
Describe the serous secretory unit within the salivary glands
has round nuclei, intercellular canaliculi, zymogen granules in apical cytoplasm, product is watery with enzymes
144
Describe the mucous secretory unit within the salivary glands
has flat nuclei, no intercellular canaliculi, larger lumen than serous, mucinogen granules in cell apex and lumen
145
Describe the structure, function, and location of salivary gland myoepithelial cells
present in both secretory units
lie between glandular cells and the basement membrane
contain myofilaments that allow contraction to facilitate secretion into ducts
146
What are the 3 types of ducts in salivary glands?
intercalated ducts
striated ducts
excretory ducts
147
What are the intercalated ducts of the salivary glands?
intralobular, small ducts that secrete bicarbonate and absorb chloride; many in serous glands
148
What are the striated ducts of the salivary glands?
intraloblar, columnar cells that secrete potassium and bicarbonate and absorb sodium
149
What are the excretory ducts of the salivary glands?
INTERlobular, and epithelium goes from columnar to pseudostratified to stratified
150
Describe the parotid gland
largest, paired, anterior to ear, and are purely serous with numerous intercalated and striated ducts
151
Describe the submandibular gland
paired, in floor of mouth and side of neck, with both types of secretions (serous/mucous)
152
Describe the sublingual gland
collection of glands in floor of mouth (each with own duct) and the majority of alveoli are mucous
153
State the function of the exocrine pancreas
produces/secretes digestive enzymes
154
Describe the structure of the pancreatic acinus
are compound serous and have secretory capillaries between them with a central lumen.
base of each cell is basophilic and the apex is acidophilic
155
List the types of ducts in the pancreas beginning at the acinus
Intercalated ducts empty into INTERlobular ducts which converge on main ducts (no striated ducts)
Main pancreatic duct of Wirsung and the accessory pancreatic duct of Santorini make up the two large ducts
156
Where does the main pancreatic duct of Wirsung empty into the duodenum?
in the hepatopancreatic ampulla of Vater
157
List the digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas
Zymogen granules contain protease precursors
nucleases
amylase
lipases
158
What two duodenal hormones control pancreatic activity?
Secretin
| CCK
159
What does Secretin do?
induces release of bicarbonate fluid to neutralize intestinal acid, provides optimal pH for pancreatic enzyme activity
160
How does CCK effect the pancreas?
causes pancreatic secretion of digestive enzymes as well stimulate gallbladder contraction
161
Describe the outer surface of the lip
covered with thin hairy skin
red area is the transition from skin to mucous membrane (highly vascular, not heavily keratinized, with no sweat glands, hair follicles, or sebaceous glands)
162
Describe the inner surface of the lip
covered with stratified non-keratinized epithelium and small clusters of mucous glands in the lamina propria
163
Describe the mucous membrane typical of the oral cavity
stratified, non-keratinized epithelium with high papillae in the lamina propria
164
What is and where is the Sulcus terminalis located?
V-shaped groove on the dorsal surface of the tongue
165
The sulcus terminalis divides the tongue into what divisions?
anterior 2/3 (oral)
| posterior 1/3 (pharyngeal)
166
What are the kinds of papillae on the dorsal surface of the tongue?
Filiform
Fungiform
Foliate
Circumvallate
167
What is the filiform papillae?
parallel to sulcus terminalis, arranged in rows, and are high/narrow conical structures
NO TASTE BUDS
168
What is the fungiform papillae?
scattered among filiform papillae and numerous at tip of tongue; look like fungus and have taste buds on upper surface
169
What is the foliate papillae?
leaf shaped, non keratinized, with taste buds
170
What is the circumvallate papillae?
about a dozen near the sulcus terminalis with many taste buds, and glands of von Ebner (serous) empty into the middle of them
171
Describe the lingual tonsil
root of tongue with epithelium extending into lymphatic tissue to form crypts, and they have mucous glands to wash out the crypts
172
Describe the palatine tonsil
between the glossopalatine and pharyngopalatine arches and have a CT capsule with septa passing inward; have primary and secondary crypts
their ducts open on surface and not in crypts (prone to infection)
173
List the layers of the GI tract in order
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa/Adventitia
174
Describe the mucosal layer of the GI tract
epithelium with lamina propria (loose CT) and muscularis mucosae (2 layers of smooth muscle)
175
Describe the submucosal layer of the GI tract
dense irregular CT with elastic fibers and Meissner's nerve plexus
176
Describe the muscularis externa layer of the GI tract
2 layers of smooth muscle (inner circular, outer longitudinal), with Auerbach's nerve plexus
177
Describe the serosa/adventitia layer of the GI tract
mesothelium of simple squamous epithelium (serosa) or it blends with CT of surrounding organs (adventitia)
178
Where are glands associated with the GI located?
in the lamina propria and submucosa
179
Name the 3 parts of the pharynx and give the type of epithelium lining each type
Nasopharynx - respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified ciliated w/ goblet cells)
Oropharynx - stratified, non-keratinized epithelium
Laryngopharynx - stratified, non-keratinized epithelium
180
Describe the muscularis mucosa of the esophagus at upper, middle, and lower levels
Upper 1/3 - skeletal muscle
Middle 1/3 - skeletal/smooth muscle
Lower 1/3 - smooth muscle
181
Describe the rugae and gastric pits of the stomach
Rugae - irregular folds in submucosa for increased SA for absorption
Gastric pits - invaginations of mucosal surface that descend into the lamina propria that are the home of gastric glands
182
What type of epithelium lines the stomach?
simple columnar with surface mucous cells
183
What cells line the stomach?
No goblet cells
has mucinogen granules in the apical portion of the surface cells
184
How are gastric glands and gastric pits related?
Gastric glands are present throughout the gastric mucosa and are branched; they empty into gastric pits that have surface mucous cells
185
What are the 4 cell types in gastric glands?
Chief (zymogenic) cells
Parietal cells
Mucous neck cells
Enteroendocrine cells
Undifferentiated cells
186
What is the function of the chief cells?
secrete pepsinogen and lipase
187
What is the function of the parietal cells?
secrete HCl and intrinsic factor (Vitamin B12 absorption for RBC maturation)
188
What is the function of the mucous neck cells?
secrete mucin
189
What is the function of the enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands?
secrete gastrin, serotinin, histamine
190
What is the function of the undifferentiated cells?
replace pit/surface epithelium upward and glandular epithelial cells downward
191
What are the 4 ways the surface area of the small intestine can be increased for absorption?
long distance of the intestine
Plicae circulares - semicircular folds
Intestinal villi - finger-like projections
Microvilli - increase SA of epithelial cells
192
What 2 cell types are found in the surface epithelium of the small intestine?
Enterocytes - columnar absorptive cells
goblet cells
193
What is the function of the enterocytes in the small intestine?
housed in the simple columnar epithelium, help in absorptions and digestions
194
What is the function of the goblet cells in the small intestine?
discharge mucin
195
Where are the crypts of Lieberkuhn located?
in the lamina propria of the small intestine and invaginate from surface
196
Which cells are contained in the upper half of the crypts of Lieberkuhn?
absorptive goblet and enteroendocrine cells (CCK secretion)
197
Which cells are contained in the lower half of the crypts of Lieberkuhn?
Paneth cells - large eosinophilic cells that secrete antimicrobial lysozymes and defensins
198
Where can you find Brunner's glands?
in the submucosa of the duodenum
199
What is the function of Brunner's glands?
are compound tubular glands that produce bicarbonate filled mucus
ducts penetrate the muscularis mucosae and empty into the crypts
200
What are Peyer's Patches?
lymphatic nodules in the lamina propria and submucosa of the ileum (contains antigen presenting cells called M-Cells)
201
What is the role of the undifferentiated columnar cells in the crypts?
Stem cells in the crypts migrate from the base to the tip of the villi in 3 days, and millions of them are shed everyday and replaced by upward migration
202
Describe the structure of the large intestine (compared to the small intestine)
No villi
long and straight crypts
No Paneth cells
Outer longitudinal layer of muscularis externa is divided into 3 longitudinal bands called taeniae coli
203
What does the taeniae coli of the large intestine form?
form saccules in the large intestine called haustrae
204
What are the principal features of the vermiform appendix?
No villi
lymphoid tissue in lamina propria
less crypts
poorly developed muscularis mucosae
the submucosa has blood vessels
No taeniae coli
205
Where does the kidney lie i the body? What space?
retroperitoneal space
206
What is the kidney surrounded by and what is it divided into?
surrounded by capsule and divided into cortex and medulla
207
The Hilum of the kidney has what that travels all the way to the bladder?
ureter
208
In the hemisected view, what all would you see in the kidney?
```
medullary pyramids (8-12)
renal colums
medullary rays
lobes
lobules
pelvis
papilla
collecting ducts
```
209
List the segments of a nephron
renal corpuscle
proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle (thick/thin; descending/ascending)
distal convoluted tubule which joins a collecting duct
210
What are the primary processes of podocytes?
foot like processes that extend from the nuclear region
211
Describe the secondary processes of the podocytes and how they are associated with glomerular capillaries
arise from primary processes
have thin gaps (filtration slits) to allow filtration barrier between the blood in the glomerular capillaries and Bowman's capsule
212
List the components of the filtration barrier established by podocytes
fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries, capillary basement membrane, and the slit membrane in filtration slits
213
What factors contribute to ultrafiltration?
occurs due to efferent arterioles being smaller than afferent ones (increased BP in glomerular capillaries)
slowed blood flow over the glomerular capillaries
thin nature of filtration barrier
214
Where is the mesangium located?
in the renal corpuscle between glomerular capillaries
215
What functions do the mesangial cells carry out?
function in phagocytosis in the glomerulrar basement membrane
contraction for blood flow regulation
structural support and secretion (cytokines and growth factors)
216
Where is the juxtaglomerular apparatus located?
at the vascular pole formed from the terminal portion of the distal straight tubule and an afferent arteriole
217
What are the 2 components of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
Macula densa
| Juxtaglomerular cells
218
What is the Macula densa?
region in the distal tubule where cells are narrow and packed to help with sampling sodium concentration and pressure of the ultrafiltrate
219
What do the juxtaglomerular cells do?
modified smooth muscle cells in the tunica media of the afferent arteriole with renin granules that lead to an increase in BP through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
220
Compare the epithelial lining of the proximal tubule, thin segment of the loop of henle, and distal tubule
Proximal tubule - simple cuboidal cells with microvilli brush border
Thin segment - simple squamous
Distal straight tubule (thick segment) - simple cuboidal
221
Several collecting tubules empty into what?
a collecting duct which then descends into medullar ray
222
Several of the collecting ducts join to form what that open into what?
form papillary ducts of Bellini that open into minor calyx
223
Describe the epithelium of collecting ducts
has light cells with aquaporins and dark cells (secrete H+ or bicarbonate, depending)
224
What is the composition of the interstitial tissue?
little interstitial tissue in the cortex, but abundant in the medulla
has fibrolasts that produce the ECM and macrophages
225
What are the endocrine functions of the kidneys?
renin produced by the juxtaglomerular cell increases blood volume and BP
erythropoietin (EPO) produced by fibrolasts increases RBC formation
calcitriol produced by cells lining the PCT increase Ca2+ to increase blood Ca
226
The abdominal aorta gives off what to supply the kidneys?
renal arteries
227
The renal arteries divide into how many branches?
3 main branches
228
The 3 main branches of the renal arteries divide into how many pyramid branches?
3-4
229
In the hilum, the pyramid branches divide into what?
INTERlobar arteries which ascend between pyramids
230
At the corticomedullary junction, the interlobar arteries form what?
arcuate arteries that run parallel to the kidney surface
231
The arcuate arteries give rise to what?
INTERlobular arteries that ascend into the cortex
232
The interlobular arteries branch to form what?
afferent arterioles
233
The afferent arterioles form what?
glomerular capillaries
234
Unfiltered blood is collected by what in the kidneys?
efferent arterioles
235
When the efferent arterioles leave the glomeruli, they break up into what?
peritubular capillary network in the cortical nephrons
vasa recta in juxtamedullary nephrons
236
In what order does blood flow through the kidney?
1. renal arteries
2. pyramidal arteries
3. interlobar arteries
4. arcuate arteries
5. interlobular arteries
6. afferent arterioles
7. glomerular capillaries
8. efferent arterioles
9. peritubular capillary/vasa recta
237
In cross section, where is the ureter located?
is continuous with the renal pelvis
238
Describe the ureter in cross section (epithelium, etc.)
lined with 4-5 layers of transitional epithelium, with a thick muscularis (inner longitudinal, outer circular), and it is surrounded by adventitia
239
The urinary bladder is similar to the ureter, except why?
except that the transitional epithelium is thicker with binucleate cells
240
The plasma membrane of the lumen of the urinary bladder is what? (thick or thin)
thick
241
How many layers of muscularis are there in the urinary bladder? What is the region also called?
3 layers
prominent middle layer
242
What are the divisions of the male urethra? (2 divisions)
prostatic urethra
penile urethra
243
What epithelium is found in the prostatic urethra?
transitional epithelium
244
What epithelium is found in the penile urethra?
pseudostratified epithelium
245
What are the 3 parts of the male urethra? (You already said two of them on previous cards :] )
prostatic, membranous, penile
246
Describe the female urethra
short with transitional epithelium
247
List the main features of the cortex of the ovary
CT stroma containing follicles
simple cuboidal epithelium
tunica albuginea
248
List the main features of the medulla of the ovary
loose CT
elastic and smooth muscle fibers
blood vessels
lymphatics
nerves
249
Before birth, the mesoderm at the surface of the ovaries forms what kind of epithelium?
germinal epithelium
250
Where do the oogonia develop and where do they migrate before birth?
develop in the yolk sac
migrate to the ovary
251
Once in the ovary, what happens to the oogonia? What forms? (still before birth)
the oogonia divide many times and enlarge to form primary oocytes
252
The primary oocytes become enclosed by what kind of epithelium? What do they then form? (still before birth)
become enclosed by simple squamous epithelium to form primordial follicles
253
The primordial follicles enter which meiosis? Which stage? How many oocytes remain at birth?
enter meiosis 1 and rest in prophase until puberty
1 million oocytes remain at birth
254
List the order of maturation of an ovarian follicle
1. primordial follicle (squamous)
2. primary follicle (cuboidal)
3. secondary follicle
4. Graafian follicle
255
During the maturation of an ovarian follicle in the follicular phase, what stimulates the primary oocyte growth in the primordial follicle? (What hormone)
FSH - follicle stimulating hormone
256
During the follicular phase, the follicular cells form several layers that form what?
Zona granulosa
257
During the follicular phase, the granulosa cells formm what?
the zona pellucid which provides nutrients
258
After the zona pellucida forms, what else forms in the granulosa?
an antrum forms in the granulosa
259
Following the formation of an antrum, what else forms?
theca folliculi
260
What are the divisions of the theca folliculi?
theca interna
| theca externa
261
What is the function of the theca interna?
secretory function - secretes estrogen
262
What is the theca externa? Describe it.
it is connective tissue
263
After how many days is the ovarian follicle fully mature?
10-14 days
264
Which cells in produce estrogen during this maturation?
granulosa cells (secreted by theca interna)
265
What is the first step in the process of ovulation?
Graafian (mature) follicle bulges on the ovary surface
266
After the Graafian follicle bulges on the ovary surface, what is the second step of ovulation?
the surface layers rupture
267
After the surface layer ruptures, what is the final stage of ovulation?
the ovum is released and drawn into the oviduct by its fimbriae
268
What is fertilization?
the sperm fertilizes the egg once it is in the ampulla
269
What is the corpus luteum?
is the collapsed follicle after ovulation
270
What is the function of the corpus luteum?
secretes mostly progesterone and some estrogen
271
If fertilization occurs, how many months does the corpus luteum last?
6 months
272
6 months after fertilization, what happens to the corpus luteum?
declines gradually to a corpus albicans
273
If fertilization doesn't occur, how many days before the corpus luteum generates the corpus albicans?
14 days
274
What is an atretic follicle?
the follicles that do not mature become a CT scar
275
What is the corpus albicans?
after birth, the corpus luteum becomes a CT scar
276
What transports the ovum from the ovary to the uterus?
the oviduct
277
What epithelium does the oviduct have?
simple columnar epithelium with some ciliated cells and others for nutrient secretion
278
The muscularis layer of the oviduct is divided into what layers? What are the divisions for?
inner circular and outer longitudinal layer to move the fertilized ovum to the uterus
279
The oviduct has how many segments?
4
280
What are the segments of the oviduct? Give a unique feature for each
Infundibulum - has fimbriae
Ampulla - longest part, where fertilization occurs
Isthmus - medial narrow third
Intramural part - crosses the uterine wall to open into the uterine cavity
281
Describe the perimetrium of the uterus
typical serosa that's continuous with the broad ligament
282
Describe the myometrium
3 smooth muscle layers with a thick circular middle layer that aids in fetal expulsion at birth (oxytocin acts on this layer for contraction)
283
Describe the endometrium
simple columnar w/ two types of cells - ciliated and secretory
284
What kinds of glands are present in the endometrium? What do they secrete?
tubular glands that secrete glycogen
285
Which layer changes during the menstrual cycle?
endometrium
286
What layer of the endometrium remains after menstruation?
stratum basale (basal layer)
287
Which layer of the endometrium is lost after menstruation?
stratum functionale (functional layer)
288
What is used to regenerate the stratum functionale?
the stratum basale
289
Which artery is destroyed during menstruation?
spiral artery
290
What is the spiral artery branching off of?
Straight artery that comes from the stratum basale
291
The proliferative phase goes from which day to which day?
day 4-14
292
What happens during the proliferative phase?
endometrium thickens; glands are straight/narrow
293
In the proliferative phase, how are the coiled arteries positioned?
do not extend beyond the lower half of the functional layer
294
The secretory phase lasts how many days?
12-14 days
295
In the secretory phase, what happens to the glands? What about secretions?
become tortuous with accumulating secretions
296
In the secretory phase, how are the coiled arteries positioned?
extend into the superficial endometrium
297
In the last 2-3 days of the secretory phase, what happens to the arteries?
arteries become constricted due to a decrease in estrogen and progesterone
298
What accumulates, specifically, in the epithelium during the secretory phase?
glycogen
299
How many days does the menstrual phase last?
4 days
300
What structures are lost in the menstrual phase?
stratum functionale along with its part of the spiral arteries are lost
301
What is supplying the stratum basale after the stratum functionale and it's associated arteries are lost?
now the spiral arteries only supply the basal layer of the endometrium, specifically the straight artery
302
What is the initial trigger for the onset of the menstrual phase?
ischemia during the end of the secretory phase due to a decrease in estrogen and progesterone
303
What happens following the initiation step of the menstrual phase?
blanching of the superficial zone of the endometrium occurs
progesterone and estrogen increase and the constricted arteries dilate causing blood and tissue fluid to lift the endometrium
304
What are the two main divisions of the cervix?
Endo and exocervix
305
What makes up the lower segment of the endocervix?
a fibromuscular wall with dense CT and smooth muscle
306
What kind of epithelium lines the endocervix?
simple columnar epithelium with cilia
307
What kind of glands are present in the endocervix?
tubular branched glands
308
What kind of cysts are present on the uterine surface?
mucus-filled cysts called Nabothian cysts
309
What kind of epithelium lines the exocervic? Does it share this epithelium with another structure?
stratified non-keratinized epithelium
Yes, it's epithelium is like the Vagina
310
Does the vagina have any glands?
No
311
If it doesn't have glands, then how is the vagina lubricated?
by cervical secretions
312
These are found on each side of the vaginal orifice (outside) and they secrete mucous
Bartholin's glans
313
What kind of epithelium lines the vagina? What is found in the superficial layer in large amounts?
stratified non-keratinized epithelium with large amounts of glycogen in the superficial layers
314
In the vagina, how does Estrogen form lactic acid? What aids it?
forms lactic acid from glycogen and is aided by Lactobacillus bacteria
315
The lamina propria of the vagina has what in it?
lymphocytes and lymph nodules
316
What are the 3 layers of the testis?
tunica vaginalis
tunica albuginea
tunica vasculosa
317
What is the tunica vaginalis?
cells of peritoneal origin
318
What is the tunica albuginea?
dense CT and smooth muscle region to help move sperm
319
Invaginatons in the tunica albuginea form what?
form the mediastinum that split the testis into lobules
320
What is the tunica vasculosa?
blood vessel network that helps maintain temperature
321
The radial septa of the tunica albuginea forms roughly how many lobules in the testis?
250 lobules
322
What is contained in each lobule in the testis?
1-4 seminiferous tubules
323
Within the lobules of the testis, describe the seminiferous tubules and what kind of epithelium lines them
are highly convoluted and lined by germinal epithelium
324
Do the seminiferous tubules anastomose with each other?
YES
325
Each seminiferous tubule is surrounded by what?
by CT and contractile myoid cells to help move the spermatozoa because they are not motile yet
326
In spermatogenesis, spermatogonia are adjacent to what?
the basement membrane
327
What are the different types of spermatogonia?
Type A Dark
Type A Pale
Type B
328
What do the Type A dark spermatogonia serve as?
serve as stem cells
329
When dividing by mitosis, what can the Type A dark spermatogonia form?
2 Type A Dark
or
2 Type A Pale
330
Are the Type A Pale spermatogonia committed to differentiating into other cell types?
YES
331
After undergoing several mitotic divisions, what type do Type A Pale spermatogonia become?
Type B
332
What Type represents the last stage of the spermatogonia?
Type B
333
What are primary spermatocytes? Where are they found? Which meiotic division do they undergo?
large, spherical cells, in the middle zone of epithelium
undergo first meiotic division
334
What are the secondary spermatocytes? Where are they located and what meiotic division do they undergo?
smaller and closer to the lumen
undergo second meiotic division
335
What is a spermatid?
even smaller than a secondary spermatocyte, and is next to the lumen
It is spherical with round nuclei
336
List the order of spermatogenesis from start to finish
1. spermatogonia
2. primary spermatocyte
3. secondary spermatocyte
4. spermatid
5. immature spermatozoa
6. mature spermatozoa
337
What is the structure of the Sertoli cells?
tall and irregular cells with a central pale nucleus
338
The Sertoli cells give nutrition to what cells?
germ cells
339
What barrier do Sertoli cells form?
blood-testis barrier
340
Sertoli cells aid in the release of what?
spermatozoa
341
Sertoli cells produce what protein that maintains testosterone concentration in tubules?
androgen binding protein
342
How many phases/steps are there in spermiogenesis?
4
343
What are the 4 steps/phases of spermiogenesis?
1. Golgi Phase
2. Cap Phase
3. Acrosomal Phase
4. Maturation Phase
344
What is happening in the Golgi phase of spermiogenesis?
proacrosomal vesicles are produced by the Golgi
centrioles move to opposite poles of cell and a flagellum forms
345
What is happening in the Cap phase of spermiogenesis?
an acrosome forms (head-cap) over the nucleus
346
What is happening in the Acrosomal phase of spermiogenesis?
reorientation of spermatid, so that the flagella faces the lumen
production of flagella
347
What is happening in the Maturation phase of spermiogenesis?
mitochondria regroup around the flagellum
surplus cytoplasm is cast off as residual body and phagocytized by the Sertoli cell
348
What are three divisions that make up the structure of the mature sperm?
Head
Neck
Tail
349
Describe the Head of the mature sperm
condensed to reduce size, acrosome contains hyalurodinase (released at ovum) that helps sperm pass through corona radiata prior to fertilization
350
Describe the Neck of the mature sperm
contains 2 centrioles
351
What are the divisions of the tail of the sperm?
Mid piece
Principal piece
End piece
352
Describe the Mid-piece of the tail of the sperm
contains axoneme of 9 x 2 microtubules and 9 outer dense fibers
353
Describe the Principal piece of the tail of the sperm
absent mitochondria, outer dense fibers continue to fibrous sheath
354
Describe the End piece of the tail of the sperm
microtubule continuation, no fibrous sheath
355
Where are the Leydig cells found and what do they do?
are interstitial cells between the seminiferous tubules
produce testosterone
356
Which ducts do sperm pass through?
```
Tubuli recti
Rete testis
Ductuli efferentes
Ductus epididymis
Ductus deferens
```
357
What is the Tubuli recti?
merging of the seminiferous tubules at the apex of each lobule, has Sertoli cells
358
What is the Rete testis?
combines spermatozoa from different tubules; anastomoses the channels
359
What is the Ductuli efferentes?
spiral ducts emerge on the testis surface; with ciliated columnar epithelium with smooth muscle
360
What is the Ductus epididymis?
single coiled tube, site of sperm storage and maturation; "swimming lessons"; has smooth muscle
361
What is the Ductus deferens?
from epididymis to seminal vesicle, has pseudostratified epithelium with stereocilia; also has 3 layers of muscle
362
What is the function of the seminal vesicle? What epithelium is it lined with?
produce fructose to provide energy for the sperm
has pseudostratified epithelium with secretion granules
363
What is the function of the prostate gland?
has secretions that help transport sperm and neutralize lactic acid in vagina (calcification of prostatic secretions can occur)
364
What is another name for the Bulbourethral glands?
Cowper's glands
365
What are the Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands?
lie lateral to the base of the penis, produce a clear viscous secretion (pre-ejaculate) to lubricate the urethra and neutralize acidic urine
366
When viewed in cross section, what two structures are visible in the penis?
two corpora cavernosa with a deep artery in the center of each
367
The two corpora cavernosa of the penis are enclosed by what?
tunica albuginea
368
When viewed in cross section, what single structure that has the urethra at its center can be seen in the penis?
one corpus spongiosum
369
What encloses the corpus spongiosum?
tunica albuginea
370
When viewed in cross section, what 3 blood vessels are visible in the penis?
at the top, there are 2 dorsal arteries and 1 dorsal vein
371
The erectile tissue has many what that fill with blood during a(an)?
has many vascular spaces that fill with blood during an erection
372
In the penis, which arteries give rise to the deep and dorsal arteries?
internal pudendal arteries
373
What arteries arise from the deep and dorsal arteries in the penis?
helicine arteries
374
In the penis, where do the helicine arteries go?
go to cavernous spaces (blood sinuses)
375
In the penis, where do the helicine arteries drain into?
the deep dorsal vein
376
To become erect, what impulses are activated and by which division of the nervous system?
vasodilator impulses activated by the parasympathetic nervous system
377
During an erection, blood flow in which arteries increases in the penis?
in the deep artery and the helicine arteries
378
Which muscle relaxes during an erection and what spaces fill in the penis?
the cavernous smooth muscle relaxes; the cavernous spaces fill
379
To become flaccid, what impulses are activated and by which division of the nervous system?
vasoconstrictor impulses are activated by the sympathetic nervous system
380
When becoming flaccid, blood flow in which arteries decreases in the penis?
in the deep artery and helicine arteries
381
When becoming flaccid, which muscle contracts and which spaces empty?
the cavernous smooth muscle contracts and the cavernous spaces empty
