An international civilization? Empire, internationalism and the crisis of the mid-twentieth century

Question 1

Martin Wight’s Influence:

Answer 1

Two decades after Martin Wight’s death, his blend of history and international relations continues to shape academic discussions, especially at the University of Sussex.

Question 2

European Civilization and International Order:

Answer 2

Wight emphasized the intimate connection between European history and global political order, asserting that the system of international politics originated in Europe and still provides the world’s political framework.

Question 3

Mid-20th Century Crisis:

Answer 3

Wight believed that an international civil war highlighted the unity of international society, implying that even crises like those in Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany did not remove countries from its confines.

Question 4

Post-1945 Changes:

Answer 4

After 1945, the formal attributes of the European state-system remained, but many cultural assumptions that underpinned it vanished, leaving a different and fragmented world.

Question 5

1934 Mock Trial:

Answer 5

A notable event in 1934 at Madison Square Garden saw 20,000 people denouncing Hitler in a mock trial organized by the American Jewish Congress, emphasizing a joint Judeo-Christian civilization against totalitarianism.

Question 6

European Civilization Concept:

Answer 6

After Napoleon’s defeat, the concept of European civilization became fundamental to new understandings of international order, with French and British thinkers locating a specific European variant.

Question 7

International Law and Civilization:

Answer 7

International law, influenced by positivist principles, explicitly applied only to civilized states, reflecting a belief in the superiority of European civilization.

Question 8

Civilization and International Recognition:

Answer 8

The concept of civilization influenced international recognition, with states gradually joining the “magic circle” through increasing civilization within the realm of law.

Question 9

Ambivalence in Recognition:

Answer 9

In the 1880s, commentators debated whether barbaric states could be admitted to parts of international law without full recognition, exemplified by differing views on the Ottoman Empire’s status after the Crimean War.

Question 10

This article explores the emergence of an international system around the idea of European civilization, its impact on global order, and the changes brought about by the mid-20th-century crisis and post-1945 era. It also highlights the role of international law in reflecting and enforcing the perceived hierarchy of civilizations.

Answer 10

Summary 1

Question 11

Ottoman Empire’s Civilized Status:

Answer 11

Despite internal reforms, the Ottoman Empire was never fully regarded as civilized in Europe. Capitulations persisted, and support for Balkan states’ autonomy and independence was justified as a means of civilizing them.

Question 12

Military Occupation in Ottoman Territory:

Answer 12

European powers occupying Ottoman territory, especially post-Franco-Prussian War, demonstrated a disregard for the theory of belligerent occupation, indicating that the Ottoman Empire was considered outside the circle of civilization.

Question 13

Perception of Semi-Civilization:

Answer 13

The Ottoman Empire, being Muslim, faced challenges in being perceived as fully civilized. The mass murder of Ottoman Armenians in 1915 was initially condemned as ‘crimes against Christendom,’ later changed to ‘crimes against humanity’ due to concerns over Indian Muslim opinion.

Question 14

Colonialism in Sub-Saharan Africa:

Answer 14

European and American lawyers applied the notion of protectorates to new colonial situations in sub-Saharan Africa. This was partly to shield non-European states and prevent conflicts among European powers, but also to manage social transformation.

Question 15

Division According to Civilization:

Answer 15

Victorian international law divided the world based on the standard of civilization. Inside Europe and European colonies, there was a sphere of civilized life with established norms. Outside, the task was to define terms for bestowing sovereignty.

Question 16

Laws of War and Civilization:

Answer 16

Laws of war, codified by Great Powers, aimed to minimize conflicts between civilized states. In small wars against uncivilized nations, European armies were taught to adopt more brutal forms of warfare, emphasizing technological superiority.

Question 17

Role of the United States:

Answer 17

The United States, initially considered a European power, gained a special relationship to international law after the war with Spain. It toughened its interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine and contributed to pan-American codification of international law.

Question 18

Japanese Challenge to Civilization Identification:

Answer 18

Japan challenged the 19th-century identification of civilization with Christendom. Their achievements in adhering to international conventions led to the repeal of unequal treaties, showing that non-Christian, non-European states could meet the standard.

Question 19

Limits of Universal Civilization:

Answer 19

German and Italian jurists, as well as many empire-builders, doubted the universalization of civilization, ruling out full recognition for non-European powers. The idea of trusteeship, central to the League of Nations colonial rule, expressed caution about the exportability of European civilization.

Question 20

Transformative Occupation Doctrine:

Answer 20

The British’s unilateral abrogation of Ottoman sovereignty in Egypt in 1914 marked the death of the old European order and the emergence of the doctrine of ‘transformative occupation,’ where sovereignty shifted from the head of state to the people or nation.

Question 21

League of Nations Transformation:

Answer 21

The League of Nations, established after World War I, marked a departure from the old European conference system. The inclusion of Abyssinia, Siam, Iran, and Turkey in its membership, driven by American influence, had a broader global reach.

Question 22

Doctrine of National Self-Determination:

Answer 22

Sovereignty was explicitly shaped by the doctrine of national self-determination after the war. Wilsonian liberalism led to the idea of guiding less civilized nations toward national self-realization. Imperialism became a term of rebuke, and trusteeship and mandates were seen differently from prewar empire-building.

Question 23

Postwar Peace Settlement and Civilizational Hierarchies:

Answer 23

The postwar settlement maintained civilizational hierarchies. Eastern European nations gained sovereignty with League oversight, emphasizing minority rights. The Middle East, especially Egypt, experienced different treatment, and protests against Wilson’s vision occurred globally, even from Japan.

Question 24

League Mandates System:

Answer 24

The League’s tripartite system of mandates classified non-European societies based on their perceived readiness for independence. Arab provinces were Class A mandates, causing fury among their inhabitants. Former German colonies were Classes B and C, administered as a ‘sacred trust for civilization.’

Question 25

League’s Civilizational Claims:

Answer 25

he League was considered by some, including the Soviet Union, as a continuation of older imperial trends. The League’s anti-Bolshevism strained relations. National Socialism in Germany overshadowed the League, challenging its claims of universality and exposing rifts in the former Concert of Europe members.

Question 26

Nazi Challenge to International Law:

Answer 26

The Nazis challenged the idea of universality and international law. Their vision involved racialized purification of conquered territory (Lebensraum), making race the true universal. They dismissed existing international legal norms in the East, and their concept of civilization was sharply bounded by territory, history, and blood.

Question 27

Tripartite Pact and International Regionalism:

Answer 27

he 1940 Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy, and Japan represented a high point of international regionalism. It aimed to establish a new world order and emphasized each nation having its proper place. Japan also challenged the League’s universalistic pretensions.

Question 28

Nazi Vision of Regional Hegemony:

Answer 28

Nazi vision involved establishing regional hegemonies. Carl Schmitt criticized the League’s expansion of international legal norms and advocated for a regional approach. The Nazis, too, saw themselves as defenders of civilization, but with clear boundaries defined by territory, history, and blood.

Question 29

Nazi Disregard for International Law:

Answer 29

The Nazis disregarded international legal norms, especially in the East, where Poland was not considered occupied but absorbed entirely. The Nazis tore down the 19th-century international law edifice, challenging the assumption of a civilizational fault-line dividing European peoples from others.

Question 30

Comparison with European Imperialism:

Answer 30

The Nazi approach had parallels with European imperialists who ignored the civilizational fault-line. Central Europe, especially Czechoslovakia and Poland, was treated similarly to colonies. The Nazis reversed the assumption that once gained, sovereignty couldn’t be abolished or diminished.

Question 31

Racism and Anti-Nazi Outrage:

Answer 31

Contemporaries noted the parallels with French protectorates in Tunis and British actions in Egypt. The Nazi policies were seen as racist, and observers expressed outrage, viewing the situation as a German colonial statute imposed on a white and civilized nation.

Question 32

Challenge to Eurocentric Language:**

Answer 32

The League’s expansion and the fragmentation of the European state system made it challenging to use the old Eurocentric language of “international civilization.” By the late 1920s and early 1930s, there was a growing acknowledgment that the concept of “civilized society” as distinct from the rest of the world was no longer valid.

Question 33

Shift in Liberal Values:

Answer 33

The interwar crisis of parliamentary democracy in Europe prompted liberals to reassess their values. Embracing modernity might require abandoning old assumptions of “civilized society.” Arnold Toynbee’s work introduced a typology of civilizations, emphasizing that there are other civilizations besides the Western.

Question 34

League’s Universalism and New World Community:

Answer 34

The League’s universalism faced criticism, especially from the Nazis who claimed it was a cover for old imperialism. Despite the League’s failure, some in the late 1930s saw the emergence of a potential global community of nations. However, defining this new world community and its principles remained a challenge

Question 35

Doubts About International Law:

Answer 35

Events in the interwar period raised questions about the foundations of international law. European civilization’s changes affected international law, and commentators expressed concerns about its credibility and the potential for international anarchy.

Question 36

Establishment of the United Nations:

Answer 36

The United Nations (UN) was established in response to the challenges posed by Hitler and as an improvement over the League. The UN shifted away from the old imperial vocabulary and emphasized socio-economic development and welfare. The veto powers of Great Powers increased.

Question 37

Decolonization and UN’s Modernity:

Answer 37

As decolonization progressed, the UN General Assembly passed resolutions emphasizing independence without delaying due to perceived lack of “civilization.” The UN focused on socio-economic development but moved away from grand supranational aspirations for international law.

Question 38

Postwar UN Realities:

Answer 38

Despite noble talk of human rights, the UN faced challenges during the Cold War. Trends away from universal law were observed, and the world within the UN was described as Hobbesian. The influence of Great Powers persisted.

Question 39

Emergence of the Term “International Community”:

Answer 39

The postwar era saw the rise of the term “international community” as a rhetorical device, evolving over generations to include various concepts such as human rights and civil society.

Question 40

Emergence of a Common Legal Civilization in Europe:

Answer 40

Ironically, as old imperial Euro-centrism was abandoned, a common legal civilization emerged in Europe. The experience of Nazi occupation contributed to the development of a binding human rights regime and political and economic integration. The European Convention on Human Rights and related developments marked a voluntary surrender of sovereignty by European states.

Question 41

European Rule-Bound International Community:

Answer 41

By the end of the century, Europe was establishing its own rule-bound international community, driven by shared institutions and legal principles. This achievement, rooted in the postwar period, raised questions about its durability in the face of new challenges to the power of law.

Question 42

Relationship Between Old and New Orders:

Answer 42

Understanding the meaning of this new European order requires tracing its relationship with the older society of nations, forming the subject of Martin Wight’s lifelong concern. The interplay between the two orders is essential for a comprehensive understanding.