An overview of Research & Common Terms

Question 1

Inductive Reasoning

Answer 1

Makes broad generalizations from specific observations

Question 2

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 2

Starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion

Question 3

Hypothesis

Answer 3

a written, declarative statement in the present tense of a prediction of the relationship between two or more variables. Used in quantitative research (not in qualitative)

Question 4

Null Hypothesis

Answer 4

Predicts there is no relationship between the variables stated in the hypothesis. Not acknowledging a null hypothesis threatens overall study validity. Careful sample selection using power analysis can help prevent these errors.

Question 5

Type I Errors

Answer 5

When the null hypothesis is rejected when it should not be. This is of more concern to researchers than type II errors

Question 6

Type II Errors

Answer 6

When the null hypothesis is not rejected when it should be since a relationship between the studied variable does exist.

Question 7

Quantitative Research

Answer 7

Grounded upon the scientific method of theory testing and focuses on more
objective evidence.
* focused on determining the cause and effect of a phenomenon, as researchers believe that events
are not random but can be linked to a specific cause
* research is tightly controlled throughout
* uses numbers and statistics to produce evidence
* the people being studied are referred to as “subjects”
* relies on unbiased observation and reliable/valid measurement of variables

Question 8

Independent and Dependent variables

Answer 8

cause and effect, the hypothesis

Question 9

Independent variables

Answer 9

treatment, intervention, or the experimental variable

Question 10

Dependent variables

Answer 10

outcome, the ruling out of extraneous effects

Question 11

Extraneous variable

Answer 11

Unplanned effect (cause) on an outcome in a research study

Question 12

Hawthorne effect

Answer 12

an example of an extraneous variable: refers to the
the psychological effect when study subjects change their behavior from how
they would normally behave because they know they are being
watched/observed

Question 13

Methods for survey research

Answer 13

interviews and questionnaires. May address knowledge, beliefs,
perceptions, attitudes, feelings, experiences, behaviors, etc. Questions should be clear, simple,
ordered from general to specific.

Question 14

Questionnaire

Answer 14

can be written (paper) or electronic (online or computer generated)
o Pros: inexpensive, fast, easy to analyze, allow for anonymity,
o Cons: low response rates, does not allow for clarification

Question 15

Attitude scales

Answer 15

Likert scale and Semantic Differential scale are structured, self report measures to learn more about the attitudes of the subjects

Question 16

Likert Scale

Answer 16

attitude statements of usually 5 to 7 points, ranging from
Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. Scores of all questions are summed to
obtain one total score.

Question 17

Semantic Differential Scale

Answer 17

Not as commonly used as the Likert scale. Pairs
of 2 opposite adjectives are placed on lines with a 7-point scale between
them. Subjects mark the point that best represents their attitude.

Question 18

Quantitative Research Designs

Answer 18

Descriptive and Correlational (do not involve intervention on the part of the researcher)

Question 19

Descriptive studies

Answer 19

Describe characteristics of a topic Ie: individuals, groups, situations and/or frequency of occurrence of certain phenomena

Question 20

Correlational studies

Answer 20

Examine relationships between variables or between subjects and the strength and direction of the relationship

Question 21

Do Quasi-experimental involve a researcher intervention?

Answer 21

Yes

Question 22

Quasi-experimental studies

Answer 22

Examine causality but there is NO random assignment and/or control group

Question 23

Experimental studies

Answer 23

Examine causality and DO have random assignment of subjects, with both an experimental and a control group

Question 24

Clinical Trials

Answer 24

Research studies, experimental in design, which assess the effects of specific new or revised clinical interventions.

Examples include clinical treatments, medical equipment use on clients, medications. In these studies, safety and efficacy of the intervention(s) are studied.

Question 25

RCT (randomized controlled trials)

Answer 25

Viewed as the gold standard for evidence-based practice decisions

Question 26

Cross sectional studies

Answer 26

Look at one phenomenon at one point in time and across multiple separate populations that differ in a clear characteristic such as age, developmental status, etc. Allows for a picture of a phenomenon as it exists in the present. no follow up intented Advantage: They are relatively economical, easy to design and implement, quick to conduct and obtain results Disadvantage: Do not capture changes that occur over time

Question 27

Longitudinal Prospective Cohort Study

Answer 27

Follow subjects over a period of time in the future. Data is collected at two or more different points in time.

Question 28

Prospective Study

Answer 28

The study of interest is identified in the present and subjects are followed for a given time frame in the future

Question 29

Cohort Study

Answer 29

A type of longitudinal study in which subjects come from a similar background or were born in the same time period

Question 30

Retrospective Study

Answer 30

uses past data which has already been collected about events that have already occurred. Record review is a possible source of data. This is a good type of study for exploratory research but not for experimental research.

Question 31

Pilot study

Answer 31

smaller scale version of a planned study which identifies and prevents a problem that could occur in the larger study. Testing of methods and procedures of the planned study are done for feasibility and accuracy of the planned larger study. Sample population for the pilot study is similar to that of the larger one.

Question 32

Double-blind experiment

Answer 32

Neither the subjects not the researchers know who the control group and who the experimental group is. They are the goal standard for experimental research.

Question 33

Control Group

Answer 33

Group of subjects in an experimental study that is comparable to the experimental group but does not receive the experimental intervention/treatment or is given an alternate treatment, such as the traditional one. Using a control group provides a baseline to measure the effects of the treatment.

Question 34

The purpose of a control group

Answer 34

To decrease threats to external validity and to increase confidence that the findings of the study can be generalized to other populations, etc. Also, using a control group helps to decrease both possible researcher bias and participant Hawthrone effect.

Question 35

Sampling

Answer 35

A process that selects representative units of a population for a study, as it is rarely feasible or necessary to sample the entire populations of interest to obtain accurate and meaningful information

Question 36

Eligibility criteria

Answer 36

Descriptors of the population which provide a basis for selection of the sample. Include age, gender, socioeconomic status, level of education, religion and ethnicity

Question 37

Target Population

Answer 37

The entire set of cases whom the researcher would like to make generalizations about. Due to constraints involved with this, the researcher usually uses an accessible population (one that meets the population criteria and is also available)

Question 38

Random sampling

Answer 38

ensures the sample is representative of the population from which it was chosen is representative of the population from which it was chosen, allows for generalizability of the findings. Mathematical probability methods are used to guarantee that each person in a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. The selection process is tightly controlled and is focused on eliminating bias.

Question 39

Simple

Answer 39

random numbers are used to select subjects from the total population

Question 40

Stratified

Answer 40

subgroups are selected from the population based on certain characteristics and a representative sample from each subgroup or stratum is then randomly chosen

Question 41

Cluster

Answer 41

entire groups are randomly selected in stages and subjects are then randomly selected only from those groups or clusters

Question 42

Systematic

Answer 42

predetermined sampling intervals are used to select subjects from the population

Question 43

Measures of Central Tendency

Answer 43

Mean Median Mode

Question 44

Mean

Answer 44

average value of a data set

Question 45

Median

Answer 45

Midpoint of a data set

Question 46

Mode

Answer 46

Most frequent value of a data set

Question 47

Four Levels of Measurement

Answer 47

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Question 48

Nominal

Answer 48

Lowest or least rigorous measurement (ex: gender, blood types)

Question 49

Ordinal

Answer 49

Rank ordering (ex: pain scale)

Question 50

Interval

Answer 50

Consistent distance between ranks (ex: age, thermometer reading)

Question 51

Ratio

Answer 51

True or natural zero point (ex: volume, speed)

Question 52

Correlations

Answer 52

Focus on the relationship between variables. 0 indicates the absence of a relationship. +1 is a perfect negative (or inverse relationship) -1 is a perfect negative (or inverse relationships) * Scatter plots: the closer the dots are to forming a straight line, the higher the correlation. If the data are distributed from lower left to upper right, a positive correlation exists If data are distributed from upper left to lower right, a negative correlation exists. Dots all over the graph represent that there is no correlation present.

Question 53

Inferential Statistics

Answer 53

uses data from samples to make inference about a population

Question 54

T-tests

Answer 54

Examines differences between means of two or more groups or sets of values

Question 55

ANOVA

Answer 55

Analysis of variance; compares the differences between two or more groups or sets of values

Question 56

Chi-square test

Answer 56

compares sets of frequency or percentage of data

Question 57

Level of significance

Answer 57

A statistical measure of the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis when it it true (saying there is a relationship among variables when there is not) When statistical significance is obtained, this indicates that results were likely due to causation rather than chance. Most common levels of significance are .05 and .01, with .05 being the usual minimum acceptable level .01 and .001 are used when the decision to be made has important consequences for treatment. The decision for setting the criteria for level of significance to be used in a study should be made before data collection begins to ensure research integrity * Keep in mind: sample size has a great effect on the level of statistical significance (small sample sizes can result in low significance levels)

Question 58

Interrater Reliability

Answer 58

When two or more independent raters use the same tool and are in agreement regarding their ratings

Question 59

Quantitative Validity (Internal validity)

Answer 59

The degree to which change in the effect (dependent variable) can be attributed only to the cause (independent variable), and not to extraneous variables

Question 60

Quantitative Validity (External validity)

Answer 60

The generalizability of the findings of an experimental study to other people and settings.

Question 61

Qualitative Research

Answer 61

Focus on discovering and interpreting the subjective meaning of an experience to an individual or group. Participants are referred to as "participants" (not subjects, as in quantitative research). Subjects are not randomly selected and rather, are handpicked for their perceived representation of the population of interest (purposeful sampling)

Question 62

Phenomenological

Answer 62

Describes experiences or phenomena from the point of view of the individuals involved; referred to as "lived experiences"

Question 63

Ethnopgraphic

Answer 63

Focuses on the understanding of the culture of a group of people. The researcher becomes an active culture.

Question 64

Bracketing

Answer 64

Method used to control for researcher bias to help ensure clear and accurate observations. Researchers reflects on their personal thoughts, feelings, etc. and set them aside [puts them in brackets]

Question 65

Trustworthiness

Answer 65

Measure of truth and rigor Four criteria of characteristics: Credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability

Question 66

Data Saturation

Answer 66

A point in qualitative studies when there are no new ideas noted in the data analysis and it is noted that saturation of themes/categories has occurred

Question 67

Field Notes

Answer 67

Reflective notes documented by the researcher's reflection on strategies and methodologies used, analysis of observations, and personal feelings.

Question 68

Focus group

Answer 68

Small group of 6-12 people for their similarities to discuss thoughts, feelings, etc. Researchers observe participants for verbal and nonverbal behaviors and interactions.

Question 69

Report

Answer 69

Written in an informal style. Direct quotes used, which adds to the credibility and trustworthiness. Themes are identified.

Question 70

Interview

Answer 70

They are more personal than questionnaires. Can be structured, unstructured, or semistructured. Pros: Higher response rate than questionnaires, increased depth of information. Cons: Cost, lack of anonymity, possible interviewer bias.