ANAT2008 Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
Cytology
A
Study of the structure of cells
2
Q
Histology
A
Study of Tissues
3
Q
5 Types of Tissues
A
Can classify the basic tissues types by identifying the basic arrangement of cells.
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscular
- Nervous
- Adipose
4
Q
Epithelial Tissue
A
Separates the body from the environment e.g skin
Cells are tightly packed together
Often responsible for major work
5
Q
Connective Tissue
A
Holds other tissues types together
Cells packed loosely
6
Q
Nervous Tissue
A
Consists of cells called neurons (specialised to conduct electrical impulses)
Cells packed tightly
7
Q
Muscle Tissue
A
Contain cells specialised for contraction
Cells not normally closely packed
Different types: smooth, skeletal, heart
8
Q
Adipose Tissue (fat)
A
Consists of cells which contain lipids
Cells separated by narrow spaces but not as tightly packed as epithelial
Type of connective tissue
9
Q
Micrometer
A
um
10^-6 M
10
Q
Nanometer
A
nm
10^-9 M
11
Q
Cell Theory
A
- Living things only consist of cells and the products of cells.
- Cells consist of one of more nuclei surrounded by a nuclear membrane which is surrounded by a cytoplasm containing organelles which is, in turn, surrounded by a plasma membrane.
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division (life arose once on this planet and then evolved).
12
Q
Two Principle Types of Cells
A
- Prokaryotic: genetic material not contained within a specific unit.
- Eukaryotic: genetic material contained within a particular site (nucleus).
13
Q
The Plasma Membrane
A
Surrounds cell
Semi-permeable (selects what enters and exits the cell)
Trilaminar appearance: 3 layers (dark, light, dark)
Made up of three molecules: lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
14
Q
Plasma Membrane - Fluid Mosaic Model
A
Phospholipid bi-layer: hydrophobic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Integral Proteins: Pass into membrane.
Peripheral Proteins: on edge of bi-layer
Carbohydrates: contently bonded to lipids and proteins, found only on outer surface of membrane, form glycocalyx (seen with electron microscope).
NOTE: the plasma membrane is the only membrane with the glycocalyx
15
Q
Plasma Membrane - Freeze Fracture Technique
A
Rapidly freeze a cell and then hit it with a knife. Fractures the membrane and allows it to be examined using a microscope.
Provides a visual conformation that the fluid mosaic model accurately depicts the arrangement of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
16
Q
Plasma Membrane - Functions
A
Regulates the movement of molecules in and out of a cell.
Ion transport: passive and active
Receptor sites
Exocytosis and Endocytosis
Cohesion: the plasma membranes of cells stick together to form tissues.
Communication
17
Q
Cytoskeleton
A
Located within the cytosol
Seen under the microscope when stained
Microtubles, microfilaments and intermediate filaments
18
Q
Cytoskeleton - microtubles
A
Made of a protein called tublin
24nm in diameter
Vary in length -> tubular molecules added or subtracted to each end
Transport
19
Q
Cytoskeleton - microfilaments
A
Actin and myosin
Located under cell membrane - stabilize
20
Q
Cytoskeleton - intermediate filaments
A
Different in different eukaryotic cells - made up of different proteins -> can be used as a diagnostic tool.
21
Q
Cytoskeleton - Function
A
Maintain cell shape
Intracellular transport
Movement of cells e.g during phagocytosis
Cellular reception e.g hearing
22
Q
Centriole
A
Pair near nucleus
Tubular structure: 9 groups of 3 microtubles form the wall of a centriole
23
Q
Centriole - Function
A
Master organiser of cell shape Cell division (produces spindle fibres) Creates basal body (critical structure in formation of cilia)
24
Q
Ribosomes
A
Equal parts protein and RNA Free in cytoplasm or attached to ER Individual or in groups (polysomes) Ribosomes in polysomes are active -> spiral structure Synthesise protein
25
Endomembrane System
Nuclear envelope, golgi body, ER
26
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Two shapes -> tubular + cisternae (sheets)
| Rough ER and Smooth ER
27
Rough ER
Cisternae structure
Ribosomes attached
Proteins synthesised
28
Smooth ER
```
Tubular shape
No ribosomes
Synthesis of steroids ( cells which secrete steroids e.g ovaries have a lot of smooth ER)
Contain enzymes which detoxify drugs
Transport of ions
Breaking down of carbohydrates
```
29
Golgi Body
Packages proteins for secretion
Proteins produced by ribosomes on the RER packaged into transport vesicles -> enter Golgi -> golgi packages proteins into large secretory vesicles -> secretory vesicles fuse together to form secretory granules and then exit the cell by exocytosis
ALSO modifies proteins (post translation modification -> required for some proteins to be active).
30
Trans Golgi Network
Collection of membranes associated with RER and golgi -> produce lysosomes
31
Lysosomes
Darkly stained vesicles
Formed in trans golgi network -> part of membrane buds off -> enzymes added
Intracellular digestion
32
Lysosomes - heterophagy
Cell digests material different from itself
1. phagocytosis = large insoluble materials ingested -> fuse to form a phagosome
2. endocytosis = small soluble materials ingested -> fuse to form an endosome
Phagosomes + endosomes fuse with lysosomes and are broken down.
33
Lysosomes - autophagy
Cells digest their own damaged or unwanted components
| Vesicles form around unwanted part -> autophagosome -> fuse with lysosome
34
Deroxisomes
Vesicles related to lysosomes
| Contain catalyse ->able to break down hydrogen peroxide (toxic biproduct of cellular metabolism)
35
Mitochondria
Outer membrane: Smooth -> defines shape of organelle
Inner membrane: folded (cristae) -> more cristae = more energy produced.
Matrix: gel substance in mitochondria
Contain some of their own DNA -> synthesis some of the proteins involved in ATP production.
36
Nucleus - nuclear envelope
Double membrane
Regulates what enters + exits
Pores -> made up of a ring of proteins
37
Nucleus - nucleoplasm
No membrane -> diffusion of molecules
| 40% protein and therefore most likely highly organised
38
Nucleus - nucleolus
Dense rounded structure
The bigger the nucleolus the more active the cell
Contain rRNA, ribosomal protein + DNA -> synthesis and pre-assembly of ribosomes
39
Nucleus - Chromatin
DNA + protein
Heterochromatin: chromosome state -> more densely packed -> darkly stained -> inactive DNA
Euchromatin: nucleosome or solenoid state -> loosely packed -> lighter stain -> active DNA
THE MORE ACTIVE A CELL THE LIGHT ITS NUCLEUS
40
Epithelial Tissue
Separates constant internal environment from hostile external environment e.g digestive tract, lungs
Endothelium: lines blood vessels
Mesothelium: lines all hollow organs except the heart
41
Epithelial Tissue - Structural and Functional Characteristics
```
Cellularity
Polarity
Specilized contacts
Lateral communication
Basal Lamina
Cell replacement
```
42
Epithelial Tissue - Cellularity
Tissue only consists of epithelial cells
Tightly packed together in sheets
Stains darkly
43
Epithelial Tissue - Polarity
Cells are polarised (different at different ends)
Apical = faces outside
Basal = faces inside
Lateral = sides
Differences seen in different specializations of the plasma membrane.
44
Epithelial Tissue - Specilized Contacts
Junctions
45
Epithelial Tissue - Lateral Communication
Pass information sideways -> made possible by the GAP junction in the plasma membrane
46
Epithelial Tissue - Basal Laminar
Fine layer of proteins and filaments -> epithelial cells connected to it
Supports cells, filters, defines the space where epithelial cells are supposed to exist.
47
Epithelial Tissue - Cell Replacement
Very high rate -> consequence of being exposed to toxic environment
More replication = more likely to mutate -> cell replicate away from external environment and move upwards.
48
Epithelial Cells: Specilizations of the apical plasma membrane
1. Special Proteins: glycoproteins (receptors), alkaline phosphate (removes phosphate group), integral proteins, transport molecules.
2. Microvilli: projection of the plasma membrane -> increase SA. Actin filaments run through the microvilli and join to a horizontal group of actin filaments (terminal web)
3. Stereocilia: Long microvili -> increase SA + sensory receptors.
4. Cilia + Flagella: motile structures. Cilia -> move fluid over a cell's surface -> special arrangement of microtubles (axoneme) 9 pairs of microtubles and 2 in the center.
49
Epithelial Cells: Specilizations of the Lateral plasma membrane
1. Proteins: associated with transport in + out of the cell
| 2. Specialized junctions: Tight junction, adherence junction, desmosomes, GAP junction.
50
Lateral Plasma Membrane Epithelial: Tight Junction
Proteins in adjacent cells make head-to-head contact -> 'zipper' cells together -> reduces the movement of molecules from outside down in between cells.
Tight = no movement of substances
Loose = movement of some substances between cells.
51
Lateral Plasma Membrane Epithelial: Adherence Junctions
Ring of cadherens proteins all around the top of the cell -> strengthens + reinforces the apex of the cell.
52
Lateral Plasma Membrane Epithelial: Desosomes
Specific spot where intermediate filaments run into cytoplasmic plate + transmember linkers link the plates of adjacent cells.
53
Lateral Plasma Membrane Epithelial: GAP Junction
Connexin proteins make head-to-head contact -> have a small pore in center -> allow passage of small molecules
54
Epithelial Cells: Specilizations of the Basal plasma membrane
1. Hemi-desmosomes: anchor cell to underlying connective tissue
2. Pedicles: protrusions of the plasma membrane into undelying connective tissue -> increase SA for adhesion.
3. Membrane infolding: Fold = more plasma membrane = more ion pumps = more efficient. Mitochondria = needed to fuel active transport of ion pumps.
55
Epithelial: Simple Squamous
Found in areas of exchange: aveoli + kidney
| Thin, leaky tight junctions + lost of vesicles
56
Epithelial: Simple Cuboidal
Kidney tubles, reproductive tract, thyroid
| Absorption and/or secretion
57
Epithelial: Simple Collumnar
Intestines, reproductive tract
Absorptive: lots of microvili -> increase SA -> increase absorption.
Secretory: secrete protein -> ER + Glogi. If secretory vesicles stored -> large secretory granules in the cell.
Deep + tight junctions -> DON'T want leaking between cells.
Mixed: contain different types of cells e.g goblet cells produce mucous.
58
Epithelial: Stratified Squamous
Many cells think -> top cell used for classification
'Wear + tear' epithelium e.g skin -> divide rapidly
Lots of desmosomes + hemi desmosomes
Keratin -> protein found in outer layer of dead cells (squames) -> strong + impermeable to water e.g skin
Most cells dont have keratin -> mouth, anus, oesophagus etc.
59
Epithelial: Stratified Cuboidal/Collumnar
2-3 cells thick
| Found in large ducts + space between 2 different types of epithelial.
60
Epithelial: Pseudostratified
Looks layered but only 1 cell thick
Nuclei at different heights
E.g lining of trachea
61
Epithelial: Transitional
Changes appearance
E.g bladder: empty: 7-8 cells thick -> full: 2-3 cells thick
Bladder: large apical cells with 2 nuclei have refractile boarders -> thickened plasma membrane which is impermeable to water -> stops loss of water + blocks toxins from urine.
62
Glands + Salivary Glands
Contain epithelial specilised for secretion
Exocrine glands: grow downwards into connective tissue -> duct in middle -> secrete onto surface of cells -> local effect. Branch to increase SA -> increase amount of secretion.
Endocrine Glands: form in same way however duct is lost -> invested with blood vessels -> products (hormones) secreted into blood vessels -> cause effects throughout the body.
63
Structure of a duct
Acinus: 95% of secretory portion produced here
Intercalated duct
Striated duct: changes the composition of saliva by pumpting ions in/out
Interlobular duct
64
Cells in secretory portion of duct
Serous: produce protein (produce enzyme which breaks down food)
Mucous; stains lightly
Myoepithelia: surround secretory cells -> contract to squeeze secretion into the duct.
65
Salivary Glands
Minor: mucous secreting
Major: Parotid (composed of 70-80% serous cells), Submandibular (60% serous + 40% mucous -> floor of mouth), Sunlingual (70% mucous -> floor of mouth).
66
From Egg to Embryo
Zygote -> blastula (ectodern + endoderm) -> grastrula (ectodern + endoderm + mesoderm)
67
Blastocyst
Ball of cell embedded in the uterus
Contain epiblasts and hypoblasts with trophoblasts surrounding
Amniotic cavity begins to form as epiblasts release amniotic fluid.
Eiblasts begin to migrate along the primtive groove -> replace hypoblast cells with endoderm cells
The endoderm cells then influence the migrating epiblast cells to differentiate into mesoderm cells
The original epiblast layer differentiates into ectoderm cells
68
Ectoderm Cells
Form 2 types of tissue
1. Epidermal ectoderm: skin, hair etc
2. Neuroectoderm: neural tube, neural crest cells -> form CNS (brain + spinal cord)
LOOK AT DIAGRAM IN NOTES FOR PROCESS OF DIFFERENTIATION
69
Mesoderm Cells
Different types of mesoderm give rise to different structures e.g paraxial = bone tissue, lateral = red blood cells
Mainly supporting structures
70
Endoderm Cells
Pancreatic cells, thyroid cells, lung cells
71
Epithelial Mesenchymal Trancition (EMT)
Stationary epithelial cells differentiate into migratory mesenchymal cells -> gets signal to detach from surrounding cells + basement membrane -> invade tissue and form organs in new places
Also important in formation of mesoderm + neural crest cells
Can be seen in adults during wound healing, cancer metasis (invade blood tissue) + fibrotic pathologies e.g cataract.
72
Connective Tissue
Connects and supports other tissue types (functional and structural connection).
Cells + extracellular matrix (cells spread apart + surrounded by extracellular matrix -> protein fibres + ground substance).
Types: proper + specilised
73
Connective Tissue Proper
All organs
Loose = more ground substance than fibres -> found beneath epithelial cells (seseptible to invasion + therefore many immune cells).
Dense = more fibres than ground substance -> few cells (mainly fibroblasts).
Irregular: fibres orientated in different directions -> tentile strength in all directions.
Regular: fibres arranged parallel -> tentile strength only in one direction e.g tendons + ligaments
ECM: fibres (collagen, reticular + elastic) + ground substance
74
Connective Tissue Proper ECM Fibres - Collagen
Thickest + most abundant
3 strands of collagen molecules are wound together (winding gives strength) -> form a collagen fibril
Bundles of fibrils form a collagen fibre -> can be different diameters due to different number of fibrils in the bundle.
NOTE: different types of collagen molecules produce different types of collagen fibres.
75
Connective Tissue Proper ECM Fibres - Reticular
Made of collagen fibres containing collagen type III molecules.
Organised framework for cells to sit on.
Highlighted by a special stain.
76
Connective Tissue Proper ECM Fibres - Elastic
Thinnest
Both collagen + elastic fibres
Elastic fibres made of elastic proteins coiled up -> coil allows stretch
77
Connective Tissue Proper ECM - Ground Substance
Mostly water -> some proteins + sugar to make more viscous
Produced by fibroblasts
Allow diffusion of ions + molecules
Proteoglycans: extend into extracellular matrix -> cushion cells
Glycoproteins: link ECM to cells
78
Cells in Connective Tissue Proper
Resident: stay in CT all the time = fibroblasts, adipocytes, mesenchymal stem cells, machrophage, mast cells
Transient: move in + out the CT e.g lymphocytes
79
Cells in Connective Tissue Proper - Fibroblasts
Most common
Produce extracellular fibres + ground substance (secretion).
If active have light hetrachromatin.
80
Cells in Connective Tissue Proper - Adipocytes
Store fats in their cytoplasm
Found individually + in small groups in loose CT
Accumulate in large numbers -> adipose tissue
Under light microscope: appear transparent with a thin ring of cytoplasm
81
Cells in Connective Tissue Proper - Mesenchymal Stem cells
Differentiate into cells for tissue repair
| Part of supportive CT structure
82
Cells in Connective Tissue Proper - Macrophages
Phagocytic
Abundant lysosomes -> break down
Immune defence
83
Cells in Connective Tissue Proper - Mast Cells
Develop in bone marrow
| Granules contain inflammatory mediators -> attract transient immune cells -> immune defence.
84
Tissue Section VS Spread Preparation
```
Section = cut through tissue + mount on a slide
Spread = tissue thin enough -> remains whole e.g mesentry (thin layer of loose CT between two layers of simple squamous epithelium).
```
85
Types of Specilised Connective Tissue
Blood
Adipose
Cartilage
Bone
86
Specilised Connective Tissue - Bone
Fluid CT
| Blood cells + plasma
87
Specilised Connective Tissue - Adipose
Under the skin
Accumulation of adipocytes
Functions: energy storage, thermal insulation, cushioning of organs + tissue, hormone secretion.
88
Specilised Connective Tissue - Cartilage
Cells = chondrocytes -> produce + maintain ECM
Avascular = no blood vessels, lymph vessels or nerves -> all oxygen, nutrients + wastes diffuse through ECM.
Three types: Hyaline, Elastic and fibrocartilage
89
Specilised Connective Tissue - Cartilage - Hyaline
Most abundant
ECM contains: type II collagen fibres (structure + strength), Proteoglycans (bind water), Multiadhesive glycoproteins (anchor chondrocytes + proteoglycans to ECM).
60-80% by water by weight -> cushioning + allows diffusion of molecules (important as no blood vessels)
Calcium can bind -> turn into bone
Surrounded by perichondrium
90
Where is Hyaline CT found ?
Lubricates articular surfaces of joins e.g knee + elbow joints
Costal cartilage of ribs -> allows flexibility of ribcage during respiration
Foundation for growth + development of bones (foetal skeleton) + cartilage growth plates in adult bones
Structural support for respiratory system -> keeps airways open + stops them collapsing
91
Specilised Connective Tissue - Cartilage - Elastic
```
Elastic + collagen fibres in ECM
Flexible
Surrounded by perichondrium
Does not calcify
Found: external ear + epiglottis
```
92
Perichondrium
Dense, irregular CT proper attached to hyaline + elastic CT -> provide blood supply + new chondrocytes for growth + repair.
93
Specilised Connective Tissue - Cartilage - Fibrocartilage
Combination of hyaline cartilage + dense regular CT
Chondrocytes + fibroblast
ECM = collagen type I + II
Resistant to sheer force + compression (shock absorber)
Anchor vertebrae together + stop them being crushed
Found: intervertebral disc + in meniscus of joints
No perichondrium + no calcification
94
Specilised Connective Tissue - Bone
Osteocytes (cells) in a mineralised ECM -> extremely hard
BOTH collagen + ground substance in ECM become mineralised
Function: support body weight, protect organs, levers for muscle movement
Store calcium + phosphate -> hydroxyapatite crystals
ECM -> collagen type I, proteins make up ground substance -> Proteoglycans (compressive strength), Growths factors (regulate bone growth, remodeling + repair), Multiadhesive glycoproteins (attach cells + collagen fibres to ECM), other proteins (e.g osteocalcin -> remove calcium from circulation).
Types of bone: Compact, Spongy and Immature
95
Specilised Connective Tissue - Compact Bone
80% of body's bone by weight -> strong, tough + rigid (structural)
Composed of Haversian systems -> central canal containing blood vessels + a nerve -> surrounded by concentric rings of lamella (form an osteon) -> osteons have interstitial lamella (remnant of old osteons) surrounding them.
Horizontal connecting channels = Volkmann's canal
Lamella: alternating dark + light rings (due to collagen fibres having alternating orientation -> gives strength)
Lacunae = small cavities in the bone -> contain osteocytes.
Canaliculi = channel between lacunae + central canal -> allow passage of substances to/from central canal.
96
Specilised Connective Tissue - Spongy Bone
Network of trabeculae
Soft, weak + flexible
HIgh SA (exchange of calcium + phosphate)
Spaces in between trabeculae filled with bone marrow (site of haematopoiesis)
Contain lamellae but do NOT form haversian systems
97
Specilised Connective Tissue - Immature Bone
```
Foetal skeleton + adults during repair
Non-lamellar bone
Collagen fibres interlace
More cells + ground substance
Initially not heavily mineralised however becomes calcified.
```
98
Specilised Connective Tissue - Bone - Periosteum
Dense, irregular CT
Surrounds bone
When bone actively growing forms 2 layers -> outer fibrous layer + inner cellular layer (contain active osteoprogenitor cells)
When bone not actively growing -> only outer fibrous layer
Attached to bone by Sharpey's fibres (strong collagen fibres) -> continuous with collagen fibres in bone ECM
99
Specilised Connective Tissue - Bone - Endosteum
Thin cellular CT layer -> lines internal surface of bone
| Osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into osteoblasts when needed -> lay down bone matrix.
100
Types of Bone Cells
Osteoprogenitor
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts
101
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Origin of osteoblasts + osteocytes but NOT osteoclasts
| Found in endosteum + periosteum
102
Osteoblast Cells
```
Build bone (secrete bone matrix), calcify bone matrix
Active = cuboidal
Inactive = flattened
When surrounded by bone matrix -> osteocyte
```
103
Osteocyte Cells
Mature bone cells
Found in lacunae
Communicate via cannaliculi
Maintain bone matrix
104
Osteoclast Cells
Break down bone (phagocytic)
| Found in Howship's lacunae
105
Cardiovascualar System
Heart: arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, veins carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart. Pulmonary circulation = heart to lungs + back, Systemic circulation = heart to body + back
Blood vessels: form loop -> heart -> artery -> medium muscular artery -> small arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> small veins -> medium veins -> large veins -> heart
NOTE: GRADUAL NOT DISTINCT CHANGE
106
Walls of Blood Vessels
Important for classification
| 3 layers: tunic intima, tunica media, tunica adventitia
107
Tunica Intima
Inside of vessel
Endothelium -> simple squamous layer of cells with basal lamina (some have a small amount of CT).
Internal elastic membrane -> distinction between t.intima and t.media.
108
Tunica Media
Middle layer
Most useful in classification (lots of muscle tissue = medium muscular artery, lots of elastin = elastic artery)
External elastic medium -> divide between t.media + t.adventilia
109
Tunica Adventilia
Outer layer
110
Main Cells Types of Blood Vessel
Endothelium
Vascular smooth muscle
Pericytes
111
Main Cells Types of Blood Vessel - Endothelium
Regulates blood homeostasis
112
Main Cells Types of Blood Vessel - Vascular Smooth Muscle
Located in t.media -> synthesize collagen + elastin
| Support elasticity + contractability
113
Main Cells Types of Blood Vessel - Pericytes
Located in venules -> contract (controlled by nitric oxide) -> controls which parts of the body the blood flows to.
114
Arteries
```
Classification based on t.media (elastic or muscular)
Thicker t.media + thinner t.adventitia
Large elastic arteries
Medium muscular arteries
Small arteries and arterioles
```
115
Large Elastic Arteries - Tunica Intima
Endothelium + basal lamina
Subendothelial layer -> collagen, elastic fibres + smooth muscle cells (secrete CT).
Internal elastic lamina
116
Large Elastic Arteries - Tunica Media
Layer of elastic fibres -> fenestrated (layers have holes in them -> allow passage of wastes + nutrients). Number of layers related to age.
117
Large Elastic Arteries - Tunica Adventita
Thin
Loose CT -> stops artery from over expanding
Fibroblasts
Blood vessels + nerves -> supply artery as walls are so thick
118
Medium Muscular Arteries - Tunica Intima
Thinner than large elastic arteries
Endothelium + basal lamina
Subendothelial layer
Prominent internal elastci lamina
119
Medium Muscular Arteries - Tunica Media
Smooth muscle fibres
Some elastic fibres however NO LAYERS
Recognisable external elastic lamina
Contraction of muscle fibres helps maintain blood pressure.
120
Medium Muscular Arteries - Tunica Adventitia
Thick
| Same as t.media
121
Small Arteries + Arterioles
Small arteries = up to 8 layers of smooth muscle in t.media
Arterioles = 2-3 layers of smooth muscle in t.media
May or may no have internal elastic lamina
Areterioles: regulate flow to capillary bed. Contraction o smooth muscle = increased vascular resistance = decreased blood flow to capillaries (controls which areas of the body the blood flows to).
122
Capillaries
Smallest diameter
Single layer of endothelium with basal lamina -> need small diffusion distance to allow exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Red blood cells fill lumen
Classification: different types of capillaries are found in different areas of the body and thus have different functions -> continuous capillaries, discontinuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries
123
Continuous Capillaries
Do not allow diffusion of large molecules
Uninterrupted endothelium + continuous basal lamina
Found: CT, muscle, lung, skin, CNS
124
Discontinuous Capillaries
Have a discontinuous basal lamina -> allow diffusion of large molecules
Liver, spleen, bone marrow
125
Fenestrated Capillaries
Continuous basal lamina but holes in epithelial cells (fenestrated) -> allow diffusion of specific molecules across capillary wall
Endocrine glands, fluid + metabolite absorption,.
126
Veins
Large lumen -> often collapsed
Tunicas not as well defined as vessel walls are not at thick.
Classification helped by looking at nearby artery -> venules, medium vein, large vein
127
Venules
Post capillary venules: endothelium + basal lamina only
| Muscular venules: endothelium + basal lamina + 1-2 layers of smooth muscle
128
Medium Vein
Valves: stop backflow of blood (low pressure by this point)
Tunica intima: endothelium + basal lamina + thin subendothelium. Some have a thin internal elastic lamina.
Tunica media: smooth muscle cells + collagen + elastin.
Tunic adventitia: thicker than t.media, collagen + elastic fibres.
129
Large Veins
Tunica Intima: endothelium, basal lamina, some subendothelial CT + smooth muscle
Tunica media: thin, smooth muscle, CT, some can have cardiac muscle if close to IVC and pulmonary veins
Tunic adventitia: thickest layer, CT + smooth muscle
130
Lymphatic Vessels
Unidirectional flow
Absorps from tissue into lymphatic capillaries -> greater permeability (able to remove protein rich fluid that the blood vessels cant).
Lymphatic vessels: endothelium but no basal lamina (higher permeability), large vessels (thicker wall with CT + muscle), valves.
131
Blood
Plasma = liquid content of the blood
Serum = liquid after the blood if allowed to clot
Made in bond marrow ->haematopoetic process.
132
Cells in the blood
```
Erthrocytes
Platelets
Leukocytes
Mast Cells
Monocytes + Macrophages
Lymphocytes
```
133
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
Produced in bone marrow
No nucleus -> cant repair themselves -> destroyed in the spleen
Enucleation -> condenses nucleus + expells it when in the bone marrow -> allows formation of biconcave discoidal shape
Size + shape can be altered due to disease -> cause anemia (dont have enough RBC/RBC not working. `
134
Platelet
Clots blood
No nucleus but able to respond to environment -> active at sight of haemorrhage
Produced by megakaryocytes -> reside in bone marrow -> very large nucleus. Platelets produced by shedding off part of their cell membrane.
135
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
Granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)
136
Leukocytes - Neutrophils
Light pink cytoplasm + abnormal nucleus
Engulf + destroy anti-body coated bacteria
Most common
137
Leukocytes - Eosinophils
Cytoplasm stains dark pink
| Fight parasites
138
Leukocytes - Basophils
Cytoplasm stains dark blue/purple
Allergic response -> granules contain heparin + histamine
Anti-parasitic response
139
Mast Cells
Found in tissue
| Release histamines + heparin -> cause area to be filled with fluid
140
Monocytes + Macrophages
Largest cell in blood
| Monocyte when in blood -> during inflammation enters tissue + becomes a macrophage -> phagocytoses bacterial cells
141
Lymphocytes
Controls the immune response
B lymphocytes = found in bone marrow + produce antibodies.
T lymphocytes = produced in thymus + fight viruses.
