Anatomy Flashcards
(324 cards)
1
Q
What does it mean if a patient is supine?
A
They are lying on their back
2
Q
What does it mean if a patient is prone?
A
They are lying on their front
3
Q
Describe the anatomical position
A
Patient is Standing
Patient is facing anteriorly/forwards (towards you)
Face and eyes looking anteriorly
upper limbs by side
palms of hands facing anteriorly
feet together
toes pointing anteriorly
4
Q
Define a median (sagittal) plane
A
The median plane also called a mid-sagittal plane is a sagittal(vertical) plane that bisects the body vertically through the midline marked by the navel, dividing the body exactly in left and right side.
5
Q
Define a coronal plane
A
A vertical plane which divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
6
Q
Define an axial(transverse) plane
A
A horizontal plane which divides the body into superior and inferior parts
7
Q
When talking about a patient do you use your own right and left if you are facing them or theirs
A
Theirs
8
Q
Define anterior
A
nearer to the front of the body
9
Q
Define posterior
A
nearer to the back of the body
10
Q
Why would a surgeon mark the correct side of a patient with an arrow before the patient is transferred to the operating theatre?
A
To prevent a right/left error
11
Q
Define superior or cranial/rostral
A
Nearer to the top of the head
12
Q
Define inferior or caudal
A
Nearer to the soles of the feet
13
Q
Define medial
A
Nearer to the midline/median plane
14
Q
Define lateral
A
Further from the midline/median plane
15
Q
Define proximal
A
Nearer to the attachment of the limb to the body
16
Q
Define distal
A
Further from the attachment of the limb to the body
17
Q
How can the terms proximal and distal be applied to arteries?
A
Proximal part of the artery is where it originates, the distal part of the artery is where it terminates
18
Q
Define superficial
A
Nearer to the surface of the body
19
Q
Define deep
A
Further from the surface of the body
20
Q
Define external
A
further from the centre of the body or organ
21
Q
Define internal
A
Nearer to the centre of a body or organ
22
Q
Define dorsal in relation to the wrist, hand, tongue and foot
A
posterior surface of the wrist
posterior surface of the hand
posterior surface of the tongue
superior surface of the foot
23
Q
What is the opposite to the dorsal surface of the wrist?
A
Volar, the anterior surface of the wrist
24
Q
What is the opposite to the dorsal surface of the hand?
A
Palmar, the anterior surface of the hand
25
What is the opposite to the dorsal surface of the tongue?
Ventral, anterior surface of the tongue
26
What is the opposite of the dorsal surface of the foot?
Plantar, the inferior surface of the foot
27
Define the anatomical terms major and minor
Relatively larger and smaller structures with the same names
28
What does it mean if a structure is midline?
Single structure located at (or near) the midline/median plane
29
What does it mean if a structure is unilateral?
Structure is normally found only on one side of the body
30
what does it mean if a structure is bilateral?
Normally paired structures, a right and a left structure.
31
What does it mean if a structure is ipsilateral in relation to another structure?
Structure lies on the same side of the body as the other structure or location it is being compared to
32
What does it mean if a structure is contralateral in relation to another structure?
Structure lies on the opposite of the body to the other structure or location it is being compared to.
33
Provide 4 examples of combined anatomical terms
4 of....
superolateral; superomedial
inferolateral; inferomedial
anteroinferior; anterosuperior
anterolateral; posterolateral
34
What is flexion?
Decreasing the angle between the bones at a joint.
35
What is extension?
Increasing the angle between the bones at a joint.
36
Define abduction
movement away from the median plane
37
Define adduction
movement towards the median plane
38
What is internal/medial rotation?
Anterior surface of a limb rotates towards the median plane
39
What is external/lateral rotation?
Anterior surface of a limb rotates away from the median plane
40
Define circumduction
Circular motion at a joint
41
How would you describe all movements at a joint superior to the knee joint?... neck, back, shoulder, elbow, wrist, finger, hips
Flexion
42
How would you describe all anterior movements inferior to the knee joints?... Knee, ankle, toes
Extension
43
What is eversion of the foot?
The sole of the foot rotates away from the median plane such that the sole faces laterally
44
What is inversion of the foot?
The sole of the foot rotates towards the median plane such that the sole faces medially.
45
What is pronation of the forearm?
Anterior surface of the forearm rotates such that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly.
46
What is supination of the forearm?
The forearm rotates from the pronated position back into the anatomical position.
47
What orientation is the forearm in in anatomical position?
supinated
48
What is the orientation of the forearm and hand when halfway between supinated and pronated and facing medially e.g. when you lift a cup
semi-prone
49
What is the name given to the movement of bringing the thumb to touch another digit?
Opposition
50
What is the movement which brings the thumb back from opposition to anatomical position?
Reposition
51
How would you describe flexion and extension of the digits?
flexion is bringing them to touch your palm and extension is moving them back into anatomical position
52
To flex your wrist do you move it superiorly or inferiorly if you are holding your arm out?
Inferiorly
53
What is the orientation of the palm in anatomical position?
Supinated
54
Describe pronation of the palm
Palm faces the posterior part of the body
55
What is abduction of the thumb?
Taking thumb anteriorly away from the palm
56
What is adduction of the thumb?
"Adding" thumb back to palm after abduction anteriorly away from the palm
57
Describe extension of the thumb
Taking thumb laterally away from palm
58
Describe flexion of the thumb
Folding the thumb across the palm
59
Describe lateral flexion
Facing anteriorly but bending to the left or right at your hip as in a sideways lunge
60
What is elevation?
A superior movement such as shrugging your shoulders
61
What is depression?
An inferior movement such as returning your shoulders to normal after shrugging them.
62
Describe protrusion and retrusion of the jaw at the temporomandibular joints
protrusion is when your jaw moves forward e.g. when making a petted lip
retrusion is the return of your jaw to anatomical position
63
What is protraction?
An anterior movement
64
What is retracton?
A posterior movement
65
What does the prefix 'costo' or 'costal' relate to?
The ribs
66
What does the word chondral relate to?
cartilage
67
Where does the word oculi come from?
Relates to oculus, latin for 'eye'
68
What is rectus latin for?
straight
69
70
What is vesicle latin for?
Bladder
71
What is systemic anatomy?
When we study the body organ systems that work together to carry out complex functions.
72
What is regional/topographical anatomy?
Considering the organisation of the human body as different major parts or segments e.g. the head and neck, trunk, etc
73
Describe surface anatomy?
Closely related to regional/topographical and is basically understanding what lies directly beneath the skin and what structures are palpable.
74
What is clinical anatomy?
Type of applied anatomy stressing the clinical relevance
75
What is a prosection?
A professionally dissected anatomical specimen which is plastinated (dipped in plastic) to help preserve them.
76
What is anatomical variation?
Recognition that everything we are taught/see in textbooks etc is the average but we don't all look the same on the outside or inside.
77
What is the fascia?
Connective tissue wrapping/packaging/insulating material of the deep structures of the body.
78
What does the circulatory system do at the most basic level?
Transports fluids through the body
79
What two systems is the circulatory system comprised of?
Cardiovascular system
&
Lymphatic system
80
What are the functions of the circulatory system?
* **Distribution of gases and other molecules for nutrition, growth and repair**
* chemical signalling (hormones)
* thermoregulation
* mediate inflammation and host defence responses
81
What are the 3 main components of the cardiovascular system and what do they do?
**Arterial system**
* All arteries of the body carry blood **away from** the heart.
**Heart**
* The pump of the system
**Venous system**
* All the veins of the body carry blood **towards** the heart.
82
What are the two main circulations of the cardiovascular system?
Pulomary circulation
systemic circulation
83
Describe the pulmonary circulation
* From the right side of heart
* to lungs
* back to left side of heart
84
Describe the systemic circulation
* from the left side of the heart
* to capillary beds of organs and tissues
* back to the right side of the heart
85
What is systole?
contraction
86
What is diastole?
Relaxation
87
What is the average pulse rate?
70 beats per minute (bpm)
88
How many systoles are there?
There are two.
The atria contract first and then the ventricles so there is an atrial systole and a ventricular systole.
89
What kind of blood does the right side of the heart carry?
de-oxygenated
90
What kind of blood does the left side of the blood carry?
oxygenated
91
What is different about veins and arteries in the transport of blood around the heart?
Veins carry oxygenated blood and arteries carry de-oxygenated blood which is unusual.
92
What is the path that blood travels through the body?
Right atrium \> Right ventricle \> Pulmonary artery \> Lungs \> Pulmonary vein \> Left atrium \> Left ventricle \> Aorta \> Rest of the body
93
What are the 3 layers of the heart?
* Epicardium (external)
* Myocardium (middle)
* Endocardium (internal)
Ep- near to
myo- muscle
Endo- Internal
94
What is the Epicardium of the heart?
* Visceral serous pericardium
* An outer protective layer
* composed of loose connective tissue including elastic fibres and adipose tissue
95
Describe the myocardium of the heart
* Cardiac muscle layer
* Thick muscular layer
* responsible for contraction
96
What is the endocardium of the heart?
* The internal layer which is continuous with endothelium of blood vessels connecting with the heart
* forms the surface of valves
97
What are the four chambers of the heart?
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle
98
Which border of the heart does the right atrium form?
The right border
99
Which surface of the heart does the right ventricle form?
Forms most of the anterior surface of the heart
100
Which heart chamber forms the left border of the heart?
The left ventricle
101
Which chamber of the heart forms the posterior surface of the heart?
Left atrium
102
What are the five great vessels of the heart?
Superior vena cava (SVC)
Inferior vena cava (IVC)
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk- divides into left and right pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins (x4)
103
What is the purpose of cardiac valves?
Valves ensure uni-directional blood flow i.e. they prevent the backflow of blood
104
Name the two atrio-ventricular valves located between the atria and the ventricles
Tricuspid valve and the mitral (bicuspid) valve
105
Where is the pulmonary valve located?
Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk
106
Where is the tricuspid valve located?
Between the right atrium and the right ventricle
107
Where is the Mitral valve located?
Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
108
Where is the aortic valve located?
Between the left ventricle and the aorta
109
What is the purpose of the pulmonary valve?
Prevents backflow from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle
110
What is the purpose of the aortic valve?
It stops blood flowing back into the left ventricle from the aorta.
111
What is the normal route for electrical conduction in the heart?
1. Electrical impulse starts spontaneously at SA node (causing both atria to contract)
2. Travels to AV node at atrioventricular septum
3. Travels down right and left bundles in the interventricular septum
4. Spreads out to myocardium through conducting fibres (causing both ventricles to contract)
112
What is the route of arterial supply and venous drainage?
arteries
arterioles
capilaries
venules
veins
113
What is the lumen of a blood vessel?
The space through which blood travels
114
What are the three layers which comprise most blood vessels?
What is their location within vessels and what are they made of?
1. Tunica intima (internal)- endothelium
2. Tunica media (middle)- smooth muscles and elastic fibres
3. Tunica adventitia (external)- connective tissue
115
What are the 7 key principles of arteries?
1. Often part of a neurovascular bundle (nerve, artery, vein)
2. High pressure (\>120/80mmHg) so thick walls
3. Often named by anatomical location (e.g. brachial artery, intercostal artery)
4. Pulsatile
5. Round lumen
6. Typically located deeper than veins
7. Carry oxygenated blood
116
When using the words proximal and distal in relation to arteries what do we mean?
Proximal- closer to the heart
Distal- away from the heart
117
What does bifurcation mean?
Divides into 2
118
What does trifurcation mean?
Divides into 3
119
What is a territory?
A region of the body supplied by a single artery and its branches.
120
What two terms indicate that a named artery will definitely divide again?
common
trunk
121
What happens when the smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles (& some arteries called muscular arteries) contracts?
This narrows the vessel's lumen
122
Define Vasodilation
Relaxation of the smooth muscle in the walls of the arterioles and widening of the lumen to INCREASE blood flow to the organ/tissue supplied.
123
Define vasoconstriction
Contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of the arterioles to REDUCE blood flow to the organ/tissue supplied.
124
What is the sympathetic tone?
Background, low level of contraction of smooth muscle in arterioles,
125
How does the sympathetic tone come about?
Due to **tonic** (continuous) conduction of action potentials to **arterioles** by **sympathetic nerves**.
126
How can the sympathetic nervous system reduce blood loss following an injury?
Arteriolar smooth muscle contraction (vasoconstriction) can help to reduce blood loss following an injury (the vessel is said to be in "spasm")
127
What is an anastomosis?
An anastamosis is where arteries connect with eachother without an intervening capillary network
128
What is an arterial occlusion?
A blockage in the artery
129
What does an anastomosis do?
Provides alternative routes for blood to flow to supply the cells distal to an arterial occlusion e.g. there are anastomoses around elbows and knees to allow the bend during flexion.
130
What is an end artery?
An end artery is the ONLY arterial blood supply to a given area of the body (there are no collateral vessels)
131
What would happen if there was an untreated occlusion of an artery?
This would result in infarction of its territory
132
Define infarction
Irreversible cell death due to hypoxia (lack of oxygen) caused by loss of arterial blood supply.
133
Provide 3 examples of infarction
Fingertip infarction- occlusion of a digital artery branch (amputation)
Myocardial infarction- occlusion of a coronary artery ('heart attack' or death)
Retinal infarction- occlusion of the central artery of the retina (monocular blindness)
134
Provide 5 key facts about the aorta...
1. **All the systemic** arterial blood enters **the aorta first**.
2. Recieves blood at **high pressure during systole** (when the heart contracts).
3. Its **elastic** walls expand under the pressure.
4. **Elastic recoil** maintains peripheral flow when the heart relaxes (during diastole).
5. **Aorta has many branches which supply the whole body**.
135
Name the 4 parts of the aorta
1. Ascending aorta
2. Arch of the aorta
3. Thoracic aorta
4. Abdominal aorta
136
How many branches does the ascending aorta have?
What are they called and what do they do?
Two branches
The left and right coronary artery
Supply the heart muscle with blood, so if they are blocked- MI
137
How many branches does the arch of the aorta have?
3
138
How many branches does the thoracic aorta have?
Numerous
139
How many branches does the abdominal aorta have?
3 unpaired midline branches & several paired, bilateral branches
140
Name the 3 branches of the arch of the aorta
1. Brachiocephalic _trunk_ (brachio= arm, cephalic=head)
2. LEFT _common_ carotid artery
3, LEFT subclavian artery (runs below the clavicle)
141
Where so the branches of the arch of the aorta supply?
Head, neck and upper limb
142
What two arteries does the brachiocephalic trunk bifurcate into?
Right common carotid artery
Left subclavian artery
143
What sometimes happens to arteries at different anatomical landmarks?
They can change their name
144
What do you always need to include when describing arteries?
Rights and lefts
internal/extrenal
145
Which arteries supply the pelvis/perineum and lower limbs?
common illiac arteries
146
Which bifurcations of the common iliac arteries supply the lower limbs and pelvis/perineum respectively?
External iliac artery- lower limbs
Internal iliac artery- pelvis/perineum
147
Name the 6 peripheral pulses
Carotid pulse
Femoral artery pulse
popliteal artery pulse
dorsalis pedis artery pulse
brachial artery pulse
radial artery pulse
148
Where can the carotid pulse be observed?
At the bifurcation of the common carotid artery
149
Where can the brachial artery pulse be felt?
Anterior to the elbow joint
150
Where can the radial artery pulse be observed?
Radial side of the palmar aspect of the wrist
151
Where can you feel the femoral artery pulse?
The continuation of the external iliac artery in the midpoint of the groin.
152
Where can you feel the popliteal artery pulse?
Posterior to the knee joint
153
Which peripheral pulse is located on the dorsum of the foot?
Dorsalis pedis artery pulse
154
What are the 7 key principles of veins?
1. Often run in **neurovascular bundle**- nerve, artery, vein
2. carry **de-oxygenated** blood
3. low pressure and non-pulsatile
4. **drain blood away** from a territory
5. **venules and veins merge** like tributaries of a river
6. **Thin walled** which are **collapsed when empty**
7. **They have valves!**
155
What are the three ways venous blood is "pumped" back towards the heart?
1. Venous valves
2. skeletal muscle pump
3. Venae comitantes
156
What is the function of venous valves when it comes to venous return?
In limb veins, valves are present to ensure unidirectional flow back to the heart against gravity.
157
How does the skeletal muscle pump allow venous return?
Contraction of skeletal muscles in the lower limb squeezes veins to help blood flow back to the heart.
158
How do venae comitantes allow venous return?
- small veins run in pairs or more with an artery in a sheath
- arterial pulsation pushes venous blood along
159
Name and describe the 2 sets of veins that the body posesses?
**superficial veins**- smaller and run within superficial fascia then drain into...
**deep veins**- larger and run deep to the deep fascia & in cavities often in NVB
160
What are the 2 main venous systems of the body?
The hepatic portal venous system
The Systemic venous system
161
What is the function of the hepatic portal venous system?
Drains venous blood from absorptive parts of the GI tract & associated organs to the liver for "cleaning"
162
What is the function of the systemic venous system?
Drains venous blood from all other organs and tissues into the superior and inferior vena cava.
163
List 4 key principles of capillaries
* Form **extensive vascular networks**
* lined with a **single layer of endothelium**
* Narrow lumen only allowing **one red blood cell (erythrocyte) through at a time**.
* Allow for **exchange of gases**, metabolites and waste products.
164
Why is it important to know about lymphatic drainage?
One of the major areas where infection or cancer can spread.
165
What is the function of lymphatic capillaries?
They collect **tissue fluid** (the fluid that normally leaks out when blood flows through capillary beds)
166
What is tissue fluid called when it enters the lymphatic capillaries?
Lymph
167
Describe lymphatic circulation
1. Lymphatic capillaries collect **tissue fluid**.
2. Once in the lymphatic capillaries the fluid is called **lymph**.
3. lymphatics carry lymph through **lymph nodes**.
4. Eventually lymph is returned into the **central veins** in the root of the **neck**.
168
Why are lymph nodes important?
Contain **white blood cells** to filter out foreign particles and fight **infection/cancer**.
169
Which lymphatic duct drains lymph into the right venous angle?
The right lymphatic duct
170
Which is the only lymphatic vessel large enough to be found in dissection?
The thoracic duct
171
Which lymphatic duct drains lymph into the left venous angle?
The thoracic duct
172
What are the two types of lymphatic vessels?
Superficial and deep
173
How is the lymphatic system a 'recycling system'?
Lymph eventually drains back into the venous system at the venous angles in the root of the neck (where the central veins returning from the head/neck & upper limbs meet).
174
Which regions of the body does the thoracic duct drain?
Right and left lower limbs, abdomen, left side of the chest, left upper limb and left side of the head and neck
175
Which regions of the body does the lymphatic duct drain?
Right upper limb
Right side of the chest
Right side of the head and neck
176
What is another name given to conducting fibres?
Purkinje fibres
177
Can normal lymph nodes be palpated?
No
178
What does 'palpated' mean?
Felt beneath the examining doctors fingertips
179
Why would you be able to palpate a lymph node or see it on a CT scan?
180
Which bones make up the axial skeleton?
Bones of the **skull**
Bones of the **neck**
Bones of the **trunk**
181
Which bones make up the appendicular skeleton?
Bones of the **pectoral girdle**
Bones of the **upper limbs**
Bones of the **pelvic girdle**
Bones of the **lower limb**
182
What is the name of the single long bone in the arm?
Humerus
183
What are the names of the two long bones in the forarm?
1. **Radius** (lateral aspect)
2. **Ulna** (medial aspect)
184
What are the names of the three types of bones in the hand:
a) The wrist bones
b) The bones in the palm
c) The finger bones
a) Carpal bones
b) Metacarpals
c) Phalanges
185
What is the name of the one long bone in the thigh?
The fumur
186
Name the 2 long bones in the leg
1. **Tibia** (medial aspect)
2. **Fibula** (lateral aspect)
187
Name the 3 types of foot bone:
a) hindfoot/midfoot
b) forefoot
c) forefoot- toes
a) Tarsal bones
b) Metatarsals
c) Phalanges
188
When do bony features develop?
During bone growth
189
For what 3 reasons may bony features develop?
1. **Functional**-best shape for the job (may help fulfil a function)
2. An **adjacent structure** e.g. a tendon, a blood vessel, a nerve or another bone **applies a force** to the developing bone moulding its shape accordingly.
3. An **adjacent structure** is **developing** at the same time as the bone- the bone has to grow around the other structure forming a foramen.
190
What is a tuberoscity?
A roughened, raised patch where the muscle or connective tissue is attaching to the bone.
191
What is a foramen?
An opening, hole or passage within the bone.
192
What two components make up the skeleton?
Bones and Cartilage
193
What is bone?
A hard connective tissue
194
What are the 4 functions of bone?
1. **Support & protection** of the body organs
2. **Calcium metabolism**
3. **Red blood cell formation**
4. **Attachment** for skeleltal muscles
195
Where does red blood cell formation occur?
In the bone marrow, usually in flat bones e.g. hips, sternum, skull, ribs, ends of long bones
196
Is connective tissue more or less rigid than bone?
**Less rigid**
197
Where is cartilage located?
Where mobility is required- at **articulations** (joints).
198
Where does movement of the skeleton occur?
At joints
199
How does movement of the skeleton occur?
**Skeletal muscles** which are attached to the bones **contract** to move the bones.
200
What are the 3 types and subtypes of joints?
1. Synovial
2. Cartilaginous
3. Fibrous
201
What is each type of joint a compromise between?
**Mobility** and **stability**
Increased mobility = decreased stability
Decreased mobility = increased stability
Each joint has a different compromise profile.
202
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ joints are the most mobile but least stable.
Synovial
203
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ joints are the least mobile but the most stable.
Fibrous
204
Do joints have a good sensory nerve supply?
Yes, joints have an excellent sensory nerve supply,
205
206
What are the 4 sensations detected by the sensory receptors of the joint nerves?
1. pain
2. touch
3. temperature
4. proprioception (sense of where a joint is positioned in space)
207
The arteries supplying joints arise from large named arteries located near the joint. What are these arteries at joints called?
Articular branches
208
Periarticular arterial anastomoses are common. What are these?
Periarterial- around the joint
anasatomoses-connection or opening between two things usually branching or diverging.
So there are arterial connections between arteries around the joint to ensure no matter what way a joint moves there is a continuous blood supply.
209
How can the arteries supplying joints become damaged?
Dislocation
Pathology such as arthritis
210
Which type of muscles produce movement and locomotion of the skeleton?
Skeletal muscles
211
Where are skeletal muscles usually found?
Deep to **deep fascia**.
Deep fascia is a tough, fibrous, connective tissue covering that lies deep to the superficial fascia and surrounds most of the skeletal muscles of the body.
212
What is skeletal muscle?
A tough fibrous connective tissue covering.
213
There are many different types of muscle fibres. Name 4.
1. Circular- usually around body orifaces
2. fusiform- spindle shaped
3. Pennate- feather like
4. quadrate- four equal sides
214
What is the benefit of longer muscle fibres?
Greater potential range of shortening.
Greater potential range of movement produced at joint.
i.e. longer muscles can contract more and produce more movement at a joint.
215
Skeletal muscles are usually named according to combination of 6 things. Name them
1. **Shape**- latin/Greek name
2. **location**- body region
3. **size**- relative size e.g. major/minor
4. main **bony attachment**
5. main **action/movement**
216
There are usually **at least 2** points of attachment of skeletal muscle to bone. What are they called?
* The "**origin(s)**" on one side of a joint
* The "**insertions**" on the other side
217
What is the function of skeletal muscle?
* Move the origin and insertion closer together during contraction.
* During contraction, muscle fibres **shorten along the long axis** between the origin and insertion.
Skeletal muscles can only move a joint if they cross a joint and attach to bones on either side.
218
What do tendons do?
Attach the muscle (usually) to bone.
* Found at either end of the muscle
* **non-contractile**, they do not contract themselves they just transmit the force generated by the muscle to move the bone
219
What does the direction of movement of skeletal muscle depend on?
Which side of the joint the muscle spans
220
Explain how you would know the direction of movement of the **biceps brachii**
* spans the **shoulder** joint **anteriorly**, therefore it **flexes the arm** at the shoulder joint.
* spans the **elbow** joint **anteriorly** therefore it **flexes the forearm** at the elbow joint
* spans the **proximal radioulnar** joint **anteriorly** producing **supination** of the forearm
221
How can the actions of any given muscle be worked out? Provide 4 contributors
1. which joint is spanned
2. the long axis of the muscle fibres
3. the aspect of the joint that is spanned
4. the shapes of the articular surfaces of the joint
222
What is an aponeurosis?
A flattened tendon
* most commonly associated with flat muscles
* attach muscle to soft tissue rather than bone
223
How is circumduction of the shoulder permitted?
By the shallow socket of the glenoid fossa of the scapula
There is nothing to stop the ball rotating right around in the socket.
224
Describe the movement of the trochlea of the distal humerus
* only flexion/extension
* trochlear notch of the proximal ulna is a very specific shape so that when the trochlea is in it forms a sort of hinge and only moves in a very specific way.
225
The deltoid only crosses one joint- the shoulder joint. How can it cause differnet movements odf the shoulder\>
Its muscle fibres are orientated in different directions.
226
Which movement of the shoulder do the posterior fibres of a deltoid allow?
Extension
227
Which movement of the shoulder do the middle fibres of the delotid allow?
Abduction
228
Which movement of the shoulder do the anterior fibres of the deltoid allow?
Flexion
229
What are the 2 key features of reflexes?
1. Protective
2. automatic
230
Name the 2 main reflexes involving skeletal muscles
1. Stretch reflex
2. flexion withdrawal reflex
231
What are reflexes?
Rapid, predictable, involuntary reactions to danger.
Movement is made unconsciously by the nervous system and muscles
232
What is involved in a flexion withdrawal reflex?
* Touch something potentially damaging
* sudden **flexion** to **withdraw** from the danger
* nerve connections are at a spinal cord level the brain is not involved
233
Name the 4 stretch reflexes
1. bicep jerks
2. tricep jerks
3. knee jerk
4. ankle jerk
234
How do we test stretch reflexes?
* A tendon hammer is used to apply a brief, sudden stretch to the **muscle** via its **tendon**.
* normal reflex response to being stretched is to **contract**
* reflex contraction results in a brief **twitch of the muscle belly** or a **movement in the normal direction**.
* reflexes are **protective** against overstretching
235
What are the three steps/nerves involved in deep tendon reflexes?
1. **Sensory nerve** from muscle **detects the stretch** & tells the spinal cord
2. **synapse** in the **spinal cord** between the sensory & motor nerves
3. **motor nerve** from spinal cord passes message to **muscle to contract**
236
What is the name of the junction where the motor nerve communicates with the skeletal muscle?
Neuormuscular junction
237
What is the name of the route taken by the action potentials during a reflex?
The reflex arc
238
The _______ prevents the reflex from being overly brisk
Brain
239
A **normal** stretch reflex indicates that the following are functioning normally:
Provide 6 points
1. The **muscle**
2. Its **sensory nerves**
3. **Its motor nerve fibres**
4. **The spinal cord connections** between the two
5. The **neuromuscular junctions**
6. **"descending controls"** from the **brain**
240
What does it mean if a muscle is paralysed?
The muscle is without a functioning **motor nerve supply**.
241
Can a paralysed muscle contract?
No, a paralysed muscle **cannot contract**
242
On examination, a paralysed muscle would have ____________ tone.
reduced
reduced tone- reduced resistance to stretch, floppy
243
If a muscle shows spacticity, does it have a functioning and intact motor nerve?
Yes, the muscle has an **intact and functioning motor nerve**.
244
On examination, a muscle with spasticity would have ___________ tone.
Increased
245
What is muscle atrophy?
'Wasting' of the muscles
246
What happens to the muscle cells during muscle atrophy?
Muscle fibres (myocytes) **become smaller**, reducing the muscles bulk.
247
How does muscle atrophy develop?
As a result of **inactivity**
* immobilisation after fracture
* damage to motor nerve supply
* 'couch potato'
248
What is the process opposite to muscle atrophy?
hypertrophy
249
What happens during muscle hyperytophy?
* Skeletal muscles enlarge
* Each **individual myocyte enlarges**
250
What are gametes?
Haploid cells which contain half the genetic information of a normal cell.
They are sex cells
251
What is the name of the male gametes?
spermatozoa
252
What is the name of the female gamete?
Oocyte or ovum
253
What produces the gametes?
The gonads
254
what is the name of the male gonads?
The testes
255
What is the name of the female gonads?
The ovaries
256
What is produced during fertilization?
A diploid cell called a zygote
257
During normal fertilisation the ovum moves from the _______ to _________ of the uterine tube.
Many spermatozoa move from _______ to vagina.
1. ovary
2. ampulla
3. testis
258
does a zygote have a full chromosome compliment/set of genetic information?
Yes
259
State three points which describe how the pelvic cavity can be found
1. lies within the **bony pelvis**
2. **continuous** with the abdominal cavity
3. between the **pelvic inlet** and the **pelvic outlet**
260
What is the pelvic inlet?
A superior ring of bone formed by the pelvic bones
261
Where does the pelvic cavity end?
At the pelvic outlet which is basically the way from the pelvis to the perineum.
262
What is the pelvic floor and what does it do?
* Internal wall of **skeletal muscle**
* **separates pelvic cavity and perineum**
263
There are openings in the pelvic floor for which three tracts?
* Distal alimentary
* reproductive
* renal
264
What is the perineum?
Space or body region between the proximal part of the limbs which is **inferior to the pelvic floor**.
265
What is the pelvic roof formed by?
parietal peritoneum
266
What is the parietal peritoneum?
The lining of the abdominal cavity
267
Describe the parietal peritoneum
* firmly attached to walls
* drapes over pelvic viscera
* tightly arrached to the anterior, posterior and lateral walls of the abdominal cavity
* thin, transparent, serous (secreting seral/peritoneal fluid) membrane
268
What are the names of the two pouches created by the peritoneum draping over the viscera?
1. Recto-uterine pouch
2. vesico-uterine pouch
269
What is another name for the recto-uterine pouch?
Pouch of douglas
270
Why is the pouch of douglas clinically important?
It is classed as the most inferior part of the peritoneal cavity in an upright female patient so any abdominal fluid such as blood or pus will collect here when the patient is upright.
271
What is the external urethral orifice the opening to?
Urinary tract
272
What is the vaginal orifice the opening to?
Female genital tract
273
What is the anus the opening to?
The gastrointestinal tract
274
What is the anterior aspect which is a kind of fatty pad at the pubic synthesis of the surface anatomy of the perineum called?
Mons pubis
275
What is the shape of the surface anatomy of the perineum in a female?
diamond
276
What is located at either side of the diamond shape that makes up the surface anatomy of the perineum in the female?
Labia madura
277
Name the female reproductive organs
Ovaries
278
Name the accessory female reproductive organs
* uterine tubes
* uterus
* vagina
279
Name the 3 layers of the body of the uterus wall
1. perimetrium
2. myometrium
3. endometrium
280
What is the name of the opening at the uterine tubes into the peritoneal cavity?
Ostium
281
Describe the 3 layers of the body of the uterus wall
1. Perimetrium- very thin outer layer
2. Myometrium- thick muscular layer that contracts during menstrual cramping
3. endometrium- thickens during the menstrual cycle for potential implantation and sheds if no implantation.
282
Name the top, middle and bottom parts of the uterus
* Top-fundus
* middle-body
* bottom-cervix
283
Where does fertilisation usually occur?
In the ampulla
284
Where does implantation occur?
In the body of the uterus
285
Describe the pathway of an unfertilized ovum during the menstrual cycle
1. Ova develops in the ovaries
2. Each mentstrual cycle, **1 ovum** is released form surface of ovary **into peritoneal cavity.**
3. ovum is gathered by **fimbraie** into **infundibilum** of uterine tube.
4. moved along **uterine tube** by cilia.
5. during menstruation, an **unfertilised ovum** is expelled by **contractions of the myometrium**.
286
Which gland plays a vital role in regulating the female hormone production and the development of the ova?
The pituitary gland.
287
What sweeps the ovum along the uterine tube?
Cilia
288
When does an ectopic pregnancy occur?
When the fertilised ovum implants outwith the uterine cavity,
97%- tubal pregnancies
some can happen in the abdomen or peritoneal cavity
289
What are the risks of ectopic pregnancies?
* Potential emergency
* danger of haemorrhage and mortality to the mother
290
What happens if an STI in the vagina spreads through the uterus and uterine tubes into the peritoneal cavity?
Can cause peritonitis- inflammation of the peritoneum
291
What is the name of female sterilisation?
Tubal ligation
292
What happens during tubal ligation?
Both uterine tubes are clipped, cut or cauterised which blocks the lumen and prevents passage of an egg or sperm through the uterine tubes.
293
What does the scrotum contain?
The testis
294
What is the urethra for?
Passing urine and ejaculation of sperm
295
What is a more common name given to the prepuce?
foreskin
296
What is the final common pathway of the urinary and reproductive tracts?
The urethra
297
What are the primary male reproductive organs?
The testes
298
Name the accessory reproductive organs in males
The vas deferens, the seminal glands, prostate glands and the penis
299
Where do the testis originate during development?
On the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity.
300
Where do the testes **descend** to through the anterior abdominal wall (**inguinal canal**) by birth?
Into the scrotum
301
What is the name of the tube that sperm pass through that follows the testis into the scrotum?
The **vas** (vas deferens)
302
Which 2 structures does the vas connect?
The testis to (almost) the urethra
303
Where does the neurovasculature originate for the male reproductive system?
The posterior wall of the abdominal cavity.
304
The inguinal canal creates a weak point in the male reproductive system, what is this susceptible to?
Hernia formation
305
306
What can happen if the testis don't descend properly?
Can cause further fertility issues down the line.
307
Where are the sperm produced?
seminiferous tubules
308
What route do the sperm travel from the testes? (3 locations)
* Pass to the rete testis
* Then into the head of the epididymus
* epididymus becomes the vas deferens
309
Describe how and which muscle keeps the seminiferous tubules and the testis approx 1ºC below core body temp
* dartos muscle helps to control temp
* smooth muscle that sits in the wall of the scrotum and reflexively contracts to help control temp of the testis.
* Can bring testis closer to the body by contracting to heat them up or relax to cool them on a warm day
310
How many sperm are produced every second?
1500
311
How long does each sperm take to mature?
64 days
312
What does the spermatic cord contain?
* vas deferens
* testicular artery
* pampiniform plexus of veins
313
What happens in torsion of the testis?
* twisting of the spermatic cord
* disrupts blood supply
* severe pain
* danger of testicular necrosis
* surgical emergency- needed roughly 2-3 hours after onset
314
Which seminal gland produces seminal fluid?
The right seminal gland
315
What does the (prostatic) urethra do?
1. drains urine from bladder
2. passes semen in ejaculation
316
Describe in 4 points the path of the sperm and how semen is produced
1. Vas deferens doesn't go into the bladder it sits on the posterior surface of both sides.
2. seminal gland is a vesicle that produces seminal fluid. Vas deferens end when joined by the seminal gland. At this point sperm and seminal fluid combine and become semen.
3. Prostatic urethra as it passes through the prostate gland
4. Once in the urethra sperm and semen continue through the penis ready for ejaculation
317
Name the 4 parts of the posterior surface of the penis from the most proximal to the most distal
1. Root of the penis
2. Body of the penis
3. Glans
4. External urethral orifice
318
What happens during an erection?
Three cylinders of erectile tissue become filled with blood at arterial pressure.
319
Where does each vas deferens lie?
Within the spermatic cord
320
Each spermatic cord passes through the _________ abdominal wall within the _________ canal to reach the pelvic cavity.
1. Anterior
2. inguinal
321
What is semen comprised of?
Sperm + seminal fluid
322
Within the pelvis each vas deferens connects with the duct from a ________ gland (produces seminal fluid) to form an _____________ duct containing semen.
1. seminal
2. ejaculatory
323
Where do the ejaculatory ducts join together and subsequently drain?
* Right and left ejaculatory ducts join together within the prostate gland (immediately inferior to the bladder)
* Drain into the urethra
324
Where does the urethra open?
At the external urethral meatus of the penis
