anatomy Flashcards
(167 cards)
1
Q
4 tissue types
A
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
2
Q
basic structure of a tissue depends on
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types of cells: cell arrangement extracellular matrix - ground substance - fibre types
3
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connective tissue
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is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue type
4
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collections of connective tissue
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- connective tissue proper
- cartilage
- bone
- blood
5
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appendicular skeleton
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pectoral girdle, upper extremity, pelvic girdle and lower extremity
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axial skeleton
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skull, vertebrae, sacrum, sternum and ribs
7
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classifications of types of bones
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long bones short bones sesamoid bones flat bones irregular bones
8
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long bones
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longer than they are wide, have a long shaft e.g. majority of limb bones
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short bones
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spherical or cube-shaped bones e.g. in wrist and ankle
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sesamoid bones
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form within tendons e.g. patella
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flat bones
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thin, flat, slightly curved e.g. skull
12
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irregular bones
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complicated shapes, cannot be classified as long, short or flat e.g. vertebra
13
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gross anatomy vs histology
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gross anatomy refers to the macroscopic structure of tissues and organs whereas histology refers to the microscopic structure of tissues and organs
14
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bone
A
Bone is a specialised connective tissue that is distinguished from other CT by its mineralised matrix. Bones are organs and they contain several tissue types.
Covered by fibrous layer called periosteum
15
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functions of bone
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support the body, protect the organs, anchorage, storage of minerals (calcium and phosphate), blood cell production (hematopoiesis), triglyceride storage, hormone production (osteocalcin)
16
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compact bone
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forms dense outer layer of all bones as well as the shaft of long bones
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spongy bone
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aka cancellous bone, fine trabeculae are rod-like structures which look like honeycomb. the marrow spaces for yellow and red marrow
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articular cartliage
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covers the joint surfaces to reduce friction and enhance congruence during movement
19
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periosteum
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fibrous layer covers the remainder of bone, allows muscle (tendon) attachment
20
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osteo
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refers to bone
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chondro
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refers to cartilage
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fibro
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refers to connective tissue proper
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myo
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refers to muscle
24
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cyte cells
A
are mature cells which exist in the tissue, they maintain the tissue around them
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B for build
'blast' cells build tissue
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C for consume
'clast' cells consume tissue
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osteocytes
mature bones cells. look 'spidery'. monitor and maintain bone matrix (bone stress, calcium levels)
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osteoblasts
bone building cells that secrete un-mineralised bone matrix. They play a role in calcification. Mature into osteocytes when surrounded by the matrix.
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osteoclasts
resorb bone so that bone can be maintained and healed. Arise from the bone marrow
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osteoprogenitor cells
stem cells which can differentiate into osteoblasts when required for growth or healing
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osteon
structural unit of compact bone
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central/ haversian canal
opening in the centre of an osteon
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lamellae
concentric rings made up of groups of hollow tubes of bone matrix
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lacunae
small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes
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canaliculi
little channels that connect lacunae
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structural classification of joints
fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial
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functional classification of joints
Synarthrosis (immovable).
Amphiarthrosis (slightly moveable).
Diathrosis (freely moveable).
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Fibrous joints
connected by dense connective tissue, have no joint cavity
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cartilaginous joint
connected by cartilage, have no joint cavity
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types of cartilaginous joints
Synchondrosis and Symphysis
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Synchondrosis
hyaline cartilage e.g. epiphyseal plate of growing bones
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Symphysis
fibrocartilage unites bones e.g. pubic symphysis
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synovial joints
articulating bones are separated by a fluid filled joint cavity. Allows substantial range of motion. 6 different types. shapes.
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joints
formed where two (or more) bones meet. Provide mobility and stability
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classification of tissue
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle and Nervous
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connective tissue types
- CT proper
- Cartilage
- Bone
- Blood
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functions of CT
- binding and supporting e.g. ligaments
- protecting e.g. bones
- Insulating e.g. adipose tissue
- storing reserve fuel e.g. adipose tissue
- transporting substances e.g. blood
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structural components of CT
- ground substance
- fibre
- cells
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CT- Ground substance
is the unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contain fibres.
- interstitial fluid- nutrients diffuse between capillaries and cells
- proteins- allow CT cells to attach tp the extracellular matrix
- proteoglycans- turning fluid into a gel or more solid material
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CT- Fibres
collagen- provides high tensile strength, pink and thick
elastic/elastin- allow stretch and recoil, thin and dark purple
reticular- short, fine and highly branched collagenous fibers
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connective tissue proper
can be loose or dense. has both fibroblasts that produce extracellular and fibroblasts that mature into fibrocytes.
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dense regular CT
primarily parallel arrangement of collagen, few elastin fibres with fibroblast and fibrocytes. Withstands tensile stress when pulling in one direction. e.g. tendons, ligaments and deep fascia.
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dense irregular CT
sheets of irregularly arranged but tightly packed collagen fibres, few elastin fibres with fibroblast and fibrocytes. Withstands tension exerted in many directions. e.g. fibrous joint capsule and dermis of skin.
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Elastic CT
high proportion of elastic fibres with fibroblasts and fibrocytes. Allows tissue to stretch and recoil. e.g. walls of large arteries and lungs.
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cartilage
tough but flexible material and a high water content allows it to rebound after being compressed. Lacks nerve fibres.
Avascular: no blood vessels contained, gets nutrients via diffusion.
Covered by perichondrium.
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types of cartilage
- hyaline- resists compressive stress e.g. articular cartilage
- fibrocartilage- resists compression and tensions e.g. intervertebral discs
- elastic- allow great flexibility whilst holding shape e.g. auricle of ear
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Epithelium classification
a sheet of cells which covers a body surface, is highly regenerative and requires specific epithelial tissue to allow it to function. e.g. skin
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Epithelium
protects the body's internal environment, regulates the exchange of materials between the internal and external environment.
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function of Epithelium
- exchange e.g. gases
- transportation e.g. absorption of nutrients
- protection e.g. skin
- secretory e.g. hormones
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structure of Epithelium
- simple squamous
- Simple cuboidal
- Simple columnar
- Stratified squamous
- Pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar
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Epithelium surface (cmk)
Cilia: microscopic processes which can move
Microvilli: increase surface area of a cell for absorption
Keratin: protein which provides water proofing and strength
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functions of skin
- protection via chemical, physical/ mechanical and biological barriers
- body temperature regulation: dilation of blood vessels, sweat glands
- cutaneous sensation: touch, temp and pain
- metabolic function: synthesis of vitamin D
- reservoir for blood e.g. shock
- excretion e.g. salt in sweat
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structure of skin
epidermis: composed of keratinised stratified squamous epithelium
dermis: primarily dense irregular CT
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subcutaneous tissue
deep to the dermis and made primarily of adipose tissue. for fat storage, shock absorption and insulation
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deep fascia
formed by dense regular CT which surrounds muscles, blood vessels and nerves.
e.g. pectoral fascia (chest), brachial fascia (arm), ante brachial fascia (forearm) and palmar aponeurosis (palm)
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functions of deep fascia
- packages and protects the body temp
- limits spread of infection
- aids blood returning to the heart
- holds tendons in place
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muscle tissue
ability to create force and movement. Highly vascularised. With 3 types.
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3 types of muscle
Skeletal muscle- produce movement of the skeleton.
Cardiac muscle- are specialised fibres found in the heart.
Smooth muscle- found in the tubes and cavities of the body.
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muscle characteristics
Excitability: respond to stimulus
Contractility: ability to forcibly shorten
Extensibility: ability to stretch/ lengthen
Elasticity: can recoil after stretching
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muscle functions
- produce movement
- maintain posture and position
- stabilise joints
- generate heat
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connective tissue sheath
endomysium: covers only one muscle fibre
perimysium: covers a group of muscle fibres (fascicle)
epimysium: covers the whole muscle, blend with deep fascia
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CT of muscle
muscle can attach directly to bone. Skeletal muscle cell contractions pull on the CT layers which then pul on the bone= bone movement.
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proximal attachment
(origin)- attachment that remains fixed or moves least
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distal attachment
(insertion)- attachment that moves most
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parallel muscles
can be strap like- equal thickness throughout
| fusiform muscles- expanded belly with tapered ends
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pennate muscles
unipennate- one side of a tendon
bipennate- both sides of a tendon
multipenate- looks like many feathers
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convergent muscles
fan-like, one broad attachment and one narrow one where the muscle fibres converge
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circular muscles
a ring of muscle
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muscle compartments
deep fascia surrounds each limb section. intermuscular septum divide the limb into muscle compartments.
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deep fascia
- packages and protects muscles
- limits spread of infection b/w muscle compartments
- forms retinacula (thick bands of deep fascia) that hold tendons in place
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skeletal muscles produce movement
when a motor unit in the spinal cord is stimulated it initiates an impulse that causes all the muscle fibres supplied by that motor unit to contract simultaneously.
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muscle contraction
concentric: muscle shortening
eccentric: muscle lengthening
isometric: muscle does not change during contraction
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agonist/ antagonist
agonist- muscle principally responisble for a movement
| antagonist- muscle opposes movement, lengthen
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types of muscle
Skeletal- produce movement of the skeleton, striated non branching fibres and voluntary
Cardiac- found in the heart, striated branching fibres, involuntary
Smooth- found inn tubes and cavities of the body, unstriated, involuntary
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Cell function
- protection and support e.g. epithelial
- transport e.g. red blood cells
- movement e.g. myocytes
- store nutrients and energy production
- immunity e.g. macrophages
- communication e.g. neural cells
- inheritance e.g. sex cells
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cytoplasm
composed of:
- cytosol
- inclusions- insoluble molecules
- organelles
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intracellular fluid (ICF)
fluid that exists within the cells of multi-celled organisms.
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extracellular materials
substances that contribute to body mass and found outside of the cell
- extracellular fluid
- cellular secretions
- extracellular matrix
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extracellular fluid (ECF)
too dissolve and transport substances in the body. includes:
- interstitial fluid
- cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
- blood plasma
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cell membrane transport
- the plasma membrane
- diffusion/ osmosis
- facilitated diffusion
- active membrane transport:
sodium/ potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump)
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plasma membrane
a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins arranged as a fluid mosaic. has 3 main components are lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
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lipids
```
phospholipids:
- form the basic structure
- polar hydrophilic head
- non polar hydrophobic tail
cholesterol
- stiffens membrane
- decrease water solubility
```
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proteins
play a role in transport, communication and joining cells. two main membrane proteins:
- integral- embedded in the lipid bilayer
- peripheral- attached loosely to the membrane
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carbohydrates
short branching carbohydrates line the extracellular surface. made up of glycolipids and glycoproteins.
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cell transport
```
- diffusion
simple (passive)
facilitated
- osmosis
- active transport
- vesicular transport
```
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vesicular transport
large particles and macromolecules are transported across the cellular membrane via vesicles
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active transport
primary active transport move solutes against the concentration gradient. cells must expend ATP. e.g. sodium potassium pump
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sodium/ potassium pump
for each molecule of ATP used, the Na+-K+ pump drives 3 Na+ out of the cell and pumps 2 K+ back in
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plasma membrane channels
voltage gated- open and close in response to a change in the membrane potential
chemically gated- open in response to a specific chemical
mechanically gated- open in response to a specific deformation of the receptor
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signals RMP produce
graded potentials- incoming signals (dendrites and cell bodies) operating over short distances that have variable (graded) strength.
action potentials- signals occurring at the axons, over long distances that always have the same strength.
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chemical synapse
the point at which one neuron communicates with or signals to another neuron or target tissues.
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action potential
travels down axon that sends information to another neuron/ target tissue
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post synaptic nerve
chemical synapses can either be excitatory or inhibitory depending on how they affect the membrane potential of the post synaptic.
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excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)
increases the neuron's ability to generate an action potential
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inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP)
reduces the neuron's ability to generate an action potential
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summation
EPSP's and IPSP's can add together, or summate to influence the post synaptic neuron. types of summation:
- temporal
- spatial
- spatial summation of EPSP's and IPSP's
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muscle microanatomy
myofibrils- a single muscle fibre
sarcomere- region of a myofibril
myofilaments- containing myosin (thick) and actin (thin) filaments
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myosin
central thick filament extending entire length of the A band and connected at the middle of the sarcomere at the M line.
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actin
lateral thin filaments extending across the I band and A band. the Z disc anchors the actin filaments
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muscle contraction
1. events at the neuromuscular junction
2. excitation-contraction coupling
3. sliding filament theory (cross bridge cycle)
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nerve
composed of bundles of neuronal axons that transfer sensory (afferent) information to the central nervous system (CNS) and motor (efferent) information from the CNS or can be both sensory and motor
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organisation of the nerve
axons- smallest
fascicles- axons are bundled together in groups
peripheral nerve- bundles of fascicles
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epineureum
covers the entire peripheral nerve
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epineureum
covers the entire peripheral nerve
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perinneurium
covers one nerve fascicle
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endooneurium
covers the myelin sheath of each myelinated nerve fibres in the peripheral nervous system
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central nervous system (CNS)
brain:
- control centre of the nervous system
- occupies the cranial cavity
spinal cord:
- continuous with the medulla oblongata
- exists the skull through the foramen magnum
- consists of 31 segments corresponding to the 31 pairs of spinal nerves
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brain regions
- cerebrum
- diencephalon
- brainstem
- cerebellum
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cerebrum lobes
- frontal
- parietal
- temporal
- occipital
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primary motor cortex
located at the precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe of each hemisphere. responsible for conscious control of skeletal muscle movement.
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primary somatosensory cortex
located at the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe of each hemisphere. receives information from sensory receptors in skin/ muscles/ joints
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homunculus
parts of the body that have more sensitivity (face, fingers and genitals) have larger areas of projections, since they require more neurons to process.
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diencephalon
made up of the thalamus and hypothalamus
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thalamus
relays sensory information and motor information, cortical arousal, learning and memory
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hypothalamus
main visceral control centre of the body and important to overall body functions
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brainstem
made up of the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. controls messages between the brain and the rest of the body and controls basic body functions e.g. breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness.
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cerebellum
processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and visual and equilibrium pathways. responsible for balance, posture, and smooth, co-ordinated movements.
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grey matter
contains non-myelinated axons, neuron soma (cell body), synapses, and local wiring (dendrites). contains:
- dorsal horn
- ventral horn
- lateral horn
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white matter
contains mostly myelinated axons. allows communication between different segments/ areas of the spinal cord and brain. run in:
- ascending
- descending
- transverse
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
consists of nerve fibres and cell bodies outside of the central nervous system. 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
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cranial
11 pairs arise from the brain, 1 pair arises from the spinal cord. passes through the foramina of the skull.
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spinal nerves
```
8 cervical pairs
12 thoracic pairs
5 lumbars pairs
5 sacral pairs
1 coccygeal pairs
```
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dorsal rami
supply synovial joints of spine, deep spinal muscles and skin upon them
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ventral rami
supply the muscles and skin of limbs and anterior and lateral trunk
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cardiovascular system
transport blood throughout the body. Which delivers nutrients, oxygen and hormones to tissues of the body.
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heart
right sides pumps to the pulmonary circulation. left side pumps to the systemic circulation.
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blood functions
transportation- nutrients, oxygen, hormones, wastes
regulation- temperature, pH, water composition
protection- immunity, inflammation, clotting
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arteries
carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except pulmonary artery). have strong muscular walls to maintain the pressure of the blood flow.
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veins
carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart (pulmonary veins). have thin muscular wall due to venous blood to being under high pressure.
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valves and muscular pump
valves prevent backflow of blood in veins. nearby muscles, arteries and the pressure of deep fascia assist in returning venous blood to the heart.
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capillaries
connect the arterioles to the venules. allow the exchange of materials between the blood and the extracellular fluid in which the cells live.
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lymphatic system
acts as an overflow system that provides drainage of tissue fluid that is not reabsorbed by the blood capillaries. collects debris from cellular decomposition and infection.
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lymph
fluid that enters the lymph capillaries
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lymph nodes
small masses of lymph tissue which filter the lymph
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lymphatic organs
thymus and spleen
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homeostasis
the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment. parameters under homeostasis control:
- temperature
- glucose levels
- blood pressure
- blood pH
- O2
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Major histocompatibility complex 1 and 2
MHC I- signals to the immune system that the cell is a 'self' and healthy cell.
MHC II- when cell becomes infected by viruses or cancerous, then cell will display MHC II protein acting as an alarm which alerts immune system to the changes.
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first line of defence
are barriers: external and internal (innate)
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second line of defence
protects from external invaders and internal rogues (innate)
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third line of defence
targets specific invaders and rogues via 'soldiers' cells and 'missile's antibodies (adaptive)
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innate immune system
1. prevent entry of the pathogen into body (physical and chemical barriers)
2. destroy any pathogen or foreign substance
3. eliminate cells that display MHC II
4. activates adaptive (specific) immune response
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1st line of defence- innate immune system
external/ anatomical barriers:
physical- skin and mucous membranes
chemical- acids, enzymes, sebum
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2nd line of defence- innate immune system
cells- phagocytic cells, basophils and eosinophils, natural killer cells and dendritic cells.
soluble proteins- complement and interferon
inflammatory mediators- histamine, prostaglandins, kinins
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phagocytic cells
mast cells- located along blood vessels, don't actively engage the pathogen. detects it then sends out chemicals.
neutrophil- most abundant type of white blood cell within tissues. release chemicals that trigger the inflammatory response.
macrophage- freely circulate throughout the body tissues, do not die after phagocytosing.
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basophil
exclusive with allergy response and hypersensitivity reactions. produce compounds that co-ordinate immune responses.
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eosinophil
responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections. control mechanisms associated with allergy and asthma.
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natural killer (NK) cells
a type of lymphocyte that are 'non-specific' in their target. only look for MHC protein and do not undergo phagocytosis rather induces apoptosis. triggers an inflammatory response.
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dendritic cells (DC)
bone marrow derived leukocytes. have a large surface area thus making them effective messengers. act by ingesting the pathogen whilst retaining the antigen. work through the adaptive immune system.
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soluble proteins- complement
accelerates the inflammatory process. directly kill some bacteria. enhances both adaptive and innate immune responses.
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soluble proteins- interferon
primary role is to prevent the replication of pathogens within the host cell by interfering with protein synthesis and by degrading viral RNA. activate NK cells and macrophages, increase antigen presentation on lymphocytes.
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inflammation
remove the infectious agent e.g. microbes or toxins.
limits its effect on the body.
repair or replace damaged tissue. alerts adaptive immunity.
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role of fever
abnormally high core body temp acts as a way of the body to destroy invading microorganisms in comparison to localised inflammation processes. inhibits reproduction/ activity of invading microbes and speed up the body's healing process.
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3rd line of defence- adaptive/ acquired immunity
targets specific invaders and rogues.
1. is specific
2. it is systemic
3. it involves B and T lymphocytes
4. it has a memory
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humoral immunity
mediated by antibodies, which attach and temporarily activate the extracellular pathogens. they 'mark' the target which signals other cells to phagocytes them.
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cell-mediated immunity
mediated by T lymphocytes which directly target and destroy intracellular pathogens. act indirectly by releasing chemicals that enhance the inflammatory response.
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activation of the adaptive response
during inflammation antigens presenting cells (APC) phagocytose antigens, process them and display them on their surface. APC is recognised by T helper cell and continues to coordinate further engagement of the T and B lymphocytes.
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primary vs secondary response
secondary response is faster as there are memory cells for the antigen preexisting due to the repeated exposure from the primary exposure.
