Anatomy

Question 1

What are the 7 different endocrine glands in the body?

Answer 1

Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland (x4)
Pancreas
Adrenal gland (x2)
Ovaries/Testicles

Question 2

What hormones are produced by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

Answer 2

ADH (also called vasopressin)
Oxytocin

Question 3

What is the mid-line sulcus called, in which the pituitary fossa is found?

Answer 3

Sella turcica

It is located at the base of the sphenoid bone.

Question 4

Which structure lies immediately superior to the pituitary gland?

Answer 4

Optic chiasm

Question 5

Which visual defect is associated with a pituitary tumor?

Answer 5

Bitemporal hemianopia

Question 6

Which surgical approaches exist for the removal of a pituitary gland pathology?

Answer 6

Transsphenoidal approach (through the nasal cavity and frontal sphenoid sinus)
Transcranial approach (through the frontal bone, passing inferior to the frontal lobe).

Question 7

What must be fractured to allow the transsphenoidal approach?

Answer 7

Nasal septum
Roof and floor of the sphenoid sinuses

Question 8

What is the tentorium cerebelli?

Answer 8

A tough sheet of dura mater which tents over the cerebellum as it lies in the posterior cranial fossa.

Question 9

What is the diaphragma sellae?

Answer 9

A tough sheet of dura mater which provides a roof to the pituitary fossa.

Question 10

What muscle separates the two (anterior and posterior) triangles of the neck?

Answer 10

Sternocleidomastoid

Question 11

Where are the 3 attachment points of the sternocleidomastoid?

Answer 11

Manubrium of the sternum (inferior)
Medial end of the clavicle (inferior)
Mastoid process of the temporal bone (superior)

Question 12

What are the layers of neck fascia (outermost first)?

Answer 12

Skin
Superficial fascia
Investing fascia
Prevertebral fascia
Carotid sheaths
Pretracheal fascia

Question 13

What are contained within the carotid sheaths?

Answer 13

Common carotid artery
Vagus nerve
Internal jugular vein
Deep cervical lymph nodes

Question 14

What are the most superficial muscles of the neck?

Answer 14

Platysma muscles

Question 15

What is a goitre?

Answer 15

An enlarged thyroid gland

Question 16

How is blood received in the thyroid gland?

Answer 16

Superiorly, through the superior thyroid artery (a branch of the external carotid artery)

Inferiorly, through the inferior thyroid artery (a branch of the subclavian artery)

Question 17

What is the first branch of the subclavian artery?

Answer 17

Internal thoracic artery

Question 18

Injury to which nerves will cause paralysis of the vocal cords?

Answer 18

Recurrent laryngeal nerves (bilaterally).

Will cause aphonia and an inability to close the rima glottidis.

Question 19

How may unilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve injury present?

Answer 19

Hoarse voice or a weak voice/cough.

Question 20

Which metabolic processes are halted by the presence of insulin?

Answer 20

Gluconeogenesis
Lipolysis

Question 21

What are risk factors for developing insulin resistance?

Answer 21

Obesity
Genetics
PCOS
Gestational diabetes
Hypertension
Smoking

Question 22

What is the role of inflammation in insulin resistance?

Answer 22

Obesity stimulates the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in adipose cells.

Question 23

Which range of HbA1c is defined as pre-diabetes?

Answer 23

42-48mmol/mol

Question 24

How should pre-diabetes be treated?

Answer 24

BMI reduction and glucose control.

Question 25

Which hormone stimulates the liver to release glucose?

Answer 25

Glucagon

Question 26

What is the incretin effect?

Answer 26

The difference in insulin secretion when glucose (of the SAME concentration) is given via oral versus intravenous routes. It means that, when given orally, glucose causes twice the response of an intravenous administration. This is due to incretin hormones.

Question 27

What is GLP-1?

Answer 27

The hormone released by L cells in the GI tract which causes the incretin effect. It makes extra insulin be released when blood glucose is sufficiently abundant (>5.5 mmol/L).

Question 28

At which vertebral levels is the thyroid gland located?

Answer 28

C5-T1

Question 29

What forms if the thyroglossal duct fails to seal up correctly?

Answer 29

Thyroglossal cyst

Question 30

Where are thyroglossal cysts found?

Answer 30

At the midline - they move with the tongue

Question 31

How many parathyroid glands are there?

Answer 31

4 - located to the posterior of the thyroid.

Question 32

What is the basic functional of the thyroid gland?

Answer 32

Follicle

Question 33

Which type of thyroid cells produce calcitonin?

Answer 33

Parafollicular cells

Question 34

Which drugs target the attachment of iodine to tyrosine as a means of reducing hyperthyroidism?

Answer 34

Carbimazole Propylthiouracil

Question 35

Which hormone represents 90% of the thyroid's hormonal output?

Answer 35

T4

Question 36

Which organs convert T4 to T3?

Answer 36

Liver and kidneys This is useful as T3 is much more potent, thus the biologically active form.

Question 37

What metabolic processes are accelerated by the presence of thyroid hormones?

Answer 37

Lipolysis Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis

Question 38

What metabolic processes are slowed in the presence of thyroid hormones?

Answer 38

Glycogenesis Lipogenesis The aim of thyroid hormones is to increase the available glucose for cellular respiration.

Question 39

What are typical symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

Answer 39

Reduced metabolic rate Slow pulse Fatigue Lethargy Cold intolerance Tendency to gain weight

Question 40

What are typical symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

Answer 40

Increased metabolic rate Fast pulse Nervousness Sweating Emotional lability Insomnia Heat intolerance Weight loss