anatomy Flashcards
study (12 cards)
Positive feedback
Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther
▪ In the body this only occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby
negative feedback
▪ Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
▪ Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its
intensity
▪ Works like a household thermostat
anatomical positions
lateral is middle
medial is center
distal and proximal is left arm.
superior is top half
inferior is bottom half
directional terms
Superior (Cranial): Toward the head or upper part of the body.
Inferior (Caudal): Away from the head or toward the lower part of the body.
Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front of the body.
Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back of the body.
Medial: Toward the midline of the body.
Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.
Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or origin.
Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or origin.
Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.
Deep: Away from the body surface, more internal.
body cavities
Dorsal Cavity: Located along the back of the body, it is divided into:
Cranial Cavity: Contains the brain.
Spinal Cavity: Encloses the spinal cord.
Ventral Cavity: Located at the front of the body, it is divided into:
Thoracic Cavity: Contains the heart and lungs, and is further divided into:
Pleural Cavities: Each surrounds a lung.
Pericardial Cavity: Surrounds the heart.
Abdominopelvic Cavity: Subdivided into:
Abdominal Cavity: Contains digestive organs like the stomach, liver, and intestines.
Pelvic Cavity: Contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
body region
Cranial region: Upper part of the head
Facial region: Lower part of the head
Thoracic region: Chest area
Abdominal region: Stomach area
Pelvic region: Hip and genital area
Upper limb: Includes the brachial (upper arm), antebrachial (forearm), and carpal (wrist) regions
Lower limb: Includes the femoral (thigh), patellar (knee), crural (lower leg), and pedal (foot) regions
sections
Sagittal Section: A vertical cut that divides the body into right and left parts. If the cut is exactly in the middle, it’s called a midsagittal or median section. If it’s off-center, it’s a parasagittal section.
Frontal (Coronal) Section: A vertical cut that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Transverse (Horizontal) Section: A horizontal cut that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. This is also known as a cross-section.
Oblique Section: A cut made at an angle, which is not parallel to the sagittal, frontal, or transverse planes
level of structural organization
Chemical Level: This is the simplest level, involving atoms and molecules. Atoms combine to form molecules, which are the building blocks of cells.
Cellular Level: Cells are the smallest independently functioning units of a living organism. Each cell is made up of various molecules and organelles.
Tissue Level: Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. There are four basic types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
Organ Level: Organs are structures made up of two or more types of tissues that work together to perform specific functions. Examples include the heart, liver, and lungs.
Organ System Level: An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body. For example, the digestive system includes organs like the stomach and intestines.
Organismal Level: This is the highest level of organization, where all the organ systems work together to maintain life and health in the organism12.
These levels of organization help us understand how the body is structured and how its various parts function together.
basic 12 systems
Integumentary System: Includes the skin, hair, and nails. It protects the body, regulates temperature, and provides sensory information.
Skeletal System: Composed of bones, cartilage, and ligaments. It supports the body, protects internal organs, and allows movement.
Muscular System: Consists of skeletal muscles. It enables movement, maintains posture, and produces heat.
Nervous System: Includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It controls body functions, responds to stimuli, and processes information.
Endocrine System: Made up of glands that produce hormones. It regulates metabolism, growth, and other functions through hormone secretion.
Cardiovascular System: Comprises the heart and blood vessels. It transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout the body.
Lymphatic System: Includes lymph nodes and lymph vessels. It defends against infection and maintains fluid balance.
Respiratory System: Consists of the lungs and airways. It facilitates breathing and gas exchange.
Digestive System: Made up of organs like the stomach and intestines. It breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste.
Urinary System: Includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes waste products from the blood and regulates water balance.
Reproductive System: Comprises organs involved in reproduction. In males, this includes the testes and penis; in females, the ovaries and uterus.
Immune System: A network of cells and proteins that defends the body against infections. It includes white blood cells, antibodies, and other components
life functions
Maintaining Boundaries: Keeping the internal environment distinct from the external environment. For example, the skin protects internal organs from the outside world.
Movement: Includes all activities promoted by the muscular system, such as walking, and also the movement of substances within the body, like blood and food.
Responsiveness (Irritability): The ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and respond to them. For instance, pulling your hand away from a hot surface.
Digestion: Breaking down food into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.
Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur within body cells, including breaking down nutrients to produce energy and using energy to build body structures.
Excretion: Removing waste products from the body. This includes the elimination of carbon dioxide by the lungs and nitrogenous wastes by the kidneys.
Reproduction: The production of offspring, which can occur at the cellular level (cell division) or the organismal level (producing a new human).
Growth: An increase in size and number of cells. Growth must occur at a rate that exceeds destructive activities.
survival needs
Nutrients: These include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. They provide energy, build and repair tissues, and regulate body processes.
Oxygen: Essential for cellular respiration, which produces the energy needed for all bodily functions. Without oxygen, cells cannot survive.
Water: Makes up about 60-70% of body weight and is crucial for maintaining fluid balance, temperature regulation, and chemical reactions.
Normal Body Temperature: Typically around 37°C (98.6°F). Enzymes that facilitate chemical reactions in the body work optimally at this temperature.
Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure: Necessary for breathing and gas exchange in the lungs. Without the right pressure, oxygen and carbon dioxide cannot be exchanged efficiently.
control system steps
Stimulus: A change occurs in the internal or external environment. This could be anything from a change in temperature to a fluctuation in blood glucose levels.
Receptor (Sensor): The receptor detects the change. For example, thermoreceptors in the skin sense a change in temperature.
Input: The receptor sends information about the change to the control center. This is usually done through nerve impulses or chemical signals.
Control Center: The control center processes the information and determines the appropriate response. The brain or endocrine glands often serve as control centers. For instance, the hypothalamus in the brain regulates body temperature.
Output: The control center sends signals to effectors to initiate a response. This can be through nerve impulses or hormones.
Effector: The effector carries out the response to correct the imbalance. This could be muscles, organs, or glands. For example, sweat glands produce sweat to cool the body down.
