Anatomy Flashcards
(277 cards)
1
Q
Posterior ramus (plural: rami) Anterior ramus (ventral branch) Plexus Ganglion Afferent Efferent Dura Arachnoid Pia White ramus communicans Grey ramus communicans
A
Posterior ramus (plural: rami) (dorsal branch) – posterior division of spinal nerve
Anterior ramus (ventral branch) – anterior division of spinal nerve
Plexus (Latin for “braid”) – branching network of nerves/vessels
Ganglion – nerve cell cluster/group of nerve bodies in the autonomic nervous system/sensory system
Afferent – input nerve fibres (receive information)
Efferent – output nerve fibres (motor supply)
Dura – thick outer meningeal layer attached to skull
Arachnoid – layer containing arachnoid spaces/blood brain barrier for exchange between blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Pia – protective layer directly over the brain and continues down spinal cord.
White ramus communicans - preganglionic sympathetic nerve tract fibres from the spinal cord.
Grey ramus communicans – Postganglionic nerve fibres for sympathetic tract
2
Q
Radial nerve supplies A M U M
A
Radial nerve linked to triceps, posterior part of arm.
Axillar nerve supplies deltoid muscle
Medial nerve supplies thumb and 2 forefingers
Ulnar nerve supplies remmaining 2 fingers
Musculocutaneous nerve supplies biceps only
3
Q
List the names of major bones in the body
A
Clavicle Scapula Humerus Radial Ulnar Femur Tibia Fibula
4
Q
What are the bones of the hand
A
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
5
Q
What are the bones of the feet
A
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
6
Q
Where are sesamoid bones found
A
Tendons
7
Q
What is the foramen of the bone
A
Foramina are where blood vessels or nerves enter or leave the bone, or the cavity which the bone encloses.
A deeper hollow is a fossa
8
Q
What are the bumps and points on bone called and what are their function
A
Bumps = tubercles or tuberosities Points= spines or processes
They all serve as attachment points for tendons and ligaments
9
Q
Role of grooves of a bone
A
grooves are formed where blood vessels, nerves or tendons lie close to the bone.
10
Q
What are condyles
A
Smooth parts of the bone which form the joint surfaces and the epicondyles are points just outside the joint, often where ligaments are attached.
11
Q
Give an example of the following: Long bones Short bones Irregular bones Flat bones Pneumatic bones Sesamoid bones
A
Long bone =femur. Long bones are tubular
Short bones =tarsals, they are cuboidal
Irregular bones = C7 vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx-bones with various shapes.
flat bones: parietal, frontal, occipital. They consist of 2 compact bone plates separated by spongy bone. Trabecular bone inside, compact bone outside, trabecular part is called diploë. Vessels that cross this are diploë vessels.
Pneumatic bones= bones in face have air spaces, they are hollow, maxilla.
Sesamoid bones = patella (found in tendons).
12
Q
What is the axial skeleton
A
skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum
13
Q
Different types of joints that occur between bones
A
Fibril joints-gomphosir joint, between tooth and alveolar cavity
Cartilaginous joints -pubic symphysis
Synovial joints
14
Q
what is the brain case of skull called
A
calvaria
15
Q
Where do the flat bones of the skull articulate at?
A
Sutures
16
Q
What is the type of joint that occurs at a suture line of the calvaria
A
Synarthroses fibrous joint (immovable)
17
Q
What structure passes through the formamen magnum in the occipital bone?
A
Spinal cord, accessory nerves (spinal roots); meningeal lymphatics; spinal meninges; vertebral arteries.
18
Q
Describe the vertebral column
A
Cervical (7) Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5) Sacral (5 fused) coccygeal (4 fused) intervertebral discs lie between successive vertebrae.
19
Q
What is the joint between the manubrium and the body of the sternum?
A
Manubriosternal joint, it is an important anatomical landmark at T4/5 level.
20
Q
What bones make up the pectoral girdle
A
scapula and clavicle
21
Q
What is the joint between the acromion on the scapula with the clavicle called?
A
Acromioclavicular joint
22
Q
What is the glenoid cavity
A
It is where the humerus articulates with the scapula.
23
Q
What are the consequences of the lack of congruence between the glenoid fossa and the head of the humerus
A
Frequent shoulder dislocation
24
Q
What is the function of the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments?
A
to attach the pelvis to the spine
25
Acetabalum
Socket of hip joint
26
Acromion
Process from scapula
27
Calcaneus
Heel bone
28
what is process of scapula called?
Carocoid
29
Epiphysis
Growth at the end of long bone
30
wHAT IS SOCKET OF shoulder joint?
Glenoid
31
Ilium
Uppermost pelvic bone
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Ischium
Posterior pelvic bone
33
wHAT TYPE OF BONE IS Lunate
Carpal bone
34
What is the Malleolus
Bony prominences either side of the ankle
35
what is the Manubrium
Upper part of sternum (breast bone)
36
what is the Mastoid
Bony protuberance behind the ear
37
wHAT IS THE Olecranon
Bony tip of elbow
38
Phalanx, phalanges
Bone of finger or toe
39
what is the Pisiform
Sesamoid bone in carpus (wrist)
40
Process
Bony protuberance
41
what type of bone is Scaphoid
Carpal bone
42
Sesamoid
Bone with a tendon (eg patella, pisiform)
43
what is the Styloid
Bony prominence either side of the wrist
44
what is the Symphysis
Secondary cartilaginous joint (pubic symphysis)
45
Tubercle
Small bony lump to which muscle is attached (eg lesser tubercle of the humerus)
46
Tuberosity
Bony lump to which muscle is attached (eg deltoid tuberosity)
47
Xiphoid
Lowest, cartilaginous part of sternum (breast bone)
48
what is diploë
spongy cancellous bone, separating inner and outer layer or corticol bone of skull (flat bones have diploë instead of tubular bones inside)
49
what are the 2 types of bone tissue?
spongy and compact
50
Where does growth of long bones occur
epiphysis
51
distal vs proximal
distal -away from torso
| proximal -close to torso
52
dIFFERENCE between diaphysis and epiphysis
disphysis is formed by compact bone, it is the shaft of long bone. Epiphysis is at the end, growth happens at the epiphysis.
53
what is bone spicule?
describes bony matrix in the development of new bone.
54
wHAT is periosteum?
A dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones, except of the surfaces of the joints. it is a fibrous connective tissue membrane, not found in the area of joints. The periosteum is supplied with numerous sensory nerve fibres, and is very sensitive to any type of injury. It is highly innervated, causes pain in injury is bone is broken. Periosteum is the only tissue with the ability to form new osteoblasts. This can happen when there is a fracture during development, and non differentiated cells will form into osteoblasts.
55
Describe osteoporosis
In osteoporosis, we lose minerals in our bones, and our bones become very light. After menopause, females lose some hormones which are needed to help keep minerals inside bones. By losing minerals, the trabecula will become thin and more fragile and vulnerable for fractures. Trabecula--> ends if long bones like femur, bone is not solid, but is full of holes, connected by thin rods and plates of bone tissue.
56
What is articular cartilage?
Smooth white tissue that covers the ends of bones when they come together to form joints.
It covers the external surface to the epiphyses. Articular cartilage is hyaline cartilage, decreases friction at bone joints.
57
what is fontanelle membrane
it is membrane on epiphyseal plate, which allows growth of long bones. This membrane is found on newborn skull, permits the growth of brain.
58
Where do all bones come from during development?
All bones come from mesenchyme, by either
1) intramembranous ossification (mesenchymal models of bones undergo ossification) or
2) endochondral ossification (cartilaginous models of bones form from mesenchyme and undergo ossification)
59
What hormones stop growth?
Sex hormones
60
What happens to soft callus in a fracture?
Soft callus is replaced by bony callus (soft callus will be ossified because periosteum will permit ossification. It will then create bony callus. This process doesn't happen in intramembranous ossification.
61
What are the common types of fractures
Comminuted -bone breaks into many fragments
compression-bone is crushed
depressed-broken bone portion is pressed inward
impacted-broken bone ends are forced into each other
Spiral-ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone
greenstick-bone breaks incompletely
62
What are paranasal sinuses?
Air filled cavities, lighten skull, give resonance and amplification to voice. Give rise to pneumatic bones.
63
Where are frontal bones found?
Mastoid process.
64
what is the floating bone?
Hyoid bone.
65
what are the 3 bones of the ear?
Malleus, incus, stapes, which is the smallest bone in body.
66
```
Describe flexibility of the following joints classified by movement
Synarthroses
Amphiarthroses
Diarthroses
Classified by structure
Fibrous joints
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints
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Synarthroses- immovable
Amphiarthroses- slightly moveable
Diarthroses- freely moveable
Fibrous joints -immoveable, gomphosir joint
Cartilaginous joints -immoveable or slightly movemable, pubic symphysis
Synovial joints -freely mobile, have synovial membrane produces liquid to fill synovial cavity.
67
```
Joints on movement
Hinge joint
Ball and socket
pivot joint
saddle joint
gliding joints
conyloid joint
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Hinge joint -movement in one direction, in one axis
Ball and socket -movement in 3 axis
pivot joint-permit rotation, happen in cervical vertebras, eg head movement
saddle joint - saddle shaped, permit movement in 2 axis
gliding joints -able to permit sliding movement
conyloid joint permit movement in 2 axis
68
What spinal roots supply the upper limb?
5 spinal nerve roots from C5-T1
69
Describe the brachial plexus
Brachial plexus consists of 5 roots, 3 trunks, 6 divisions and 3 cords, from which the 5 main branches arise. Brachial plexus passes deep to the clavicle (collar bone) and continues into the axilla (underarm).
70
What are the 5 major peripheral nerves formed by brachial plexus
These 5 major peripheral nerves carry motor and sensory fibres to the upper limb:
The musculo-cutaneous nerve (C5, C6, C7), innervates brachilis, biceps and coracobrachialis
The radial nerve (C5-T1) innervates the triceps and posterior compartment of forearm. Sensory posterior aspect of arm, forearm, posteriolateral aspect of hand. If radial nerve damaged, cannot extend the back of the hand.
The axillary nerve (C5,C6) innervates teres minor and deltoid, sensory-inferior region of deltoid (regimental patch area)
The median nerve (C6-T1) forearm flexors, thenar muscles. Sensation lateral for 3 fingers (thumb and 2 fingers)
The ulnar nerve (C8-T1) muscles of the hand and flexor carpi ulnaris + medial half flexor digitorum profundus. Sensory-anterior + post medial (remaining 2 fingers).
71
What are the sites at which the peripheral nerves are vulnerable to damage
Axillary nerve, radial nerve, ulnar nerve.
The axillary nerve -within the axilla
The radial nerve -as it winds around the shaft of the humerus
The ulnar nerve-as it passes behind the medial epicondyle of the humerus the median nerve deep to the flexor retinaculum in the wrist.
72
Describe the nerve innervation of the lower limb
The lower limb is supplied by 8 spinal nerve roots (L1-S3) which contribute to the lumbar and sacral plexuses.
The Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) branches within the psoas major muscle (big hip flexor muscle located from the lumbar spine) and supplies the anterior and medial compartments of the thigh.
The rest of the lower limb is supplied by the sacral plexus (S1-S3) WHICH INCLUDES THE LUMBOSACRAL TRUNK (l4/5).
73
What does the sciatic nerve bifurcate into?
The common fibular (peroneal nerve)
-Motor: muscles of the anterior leg, lateral leg and the remaining foot muscles
-Sensory: innervates the lateral leg and the dorsal surface of the foot.
The tibial nerve (supplies the posterior thing 'hamstring' muscles, and the calf muscles called soleus and gastrocnemius).
-Motor: muscles of the posterior leg (calf muscles) + intrinsic foot muscles
-Sensory: innervates the posterolateral and anterolateral sides of the leg + plantar surface of foot.
74
what nerve supplies the quadricepts?
The femoral nerve.
75
What nerve supplies the medial (adductor) compartment of the thigh?
The obturator nerve
76
What nerves run with the ribs, emerging from the vertebral column?
The intercostal nerves, there are 11 intercostal nerves and 1 subcostal nerve, that runs under rib 12.
77
Role of CNX (Vagus nerve)
Supplies parasympathetic innervation to the thorax and abdomen. Vagus nerve is one of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves which arise from the base of the brain.
78
Phrenic nerve
the phrenic nerve (C3,4,5) which supplies the diaphragm and is therefore important in breathing.
79
What does the grey and white matter of spinal cord contain
Grey matter is neuronal cell bodies
| White matter is myelinated axons, linking different parts of the CNS.
80
What level does the spinal cord end?
L2
81
Describe the layers of the spinal cord?
Dura
Subdural space, full with CSF
Arachnoid matter with arachnoid spaces, contains blood brain barrier to allow exchange between blood and CSF
Pia mater, protective layer, directly over brainand goes down to spinal cord. Spinal cord ends at level L2
Spinal cord (L2)
Conus medullaris
Cauda equina (horses tail)
82
Lumbosacral plexus
Femoral triangle (NAVY)
Femoral nerve follows femoral bone
Femoral nerve supplies anterior part of thigh
Obturator foramen nerve supplies inner thigh, allows crossing of legs)
Sciatic nerve comes from L4, all the way down
Sciatic nerve splits into tibial (anterior) and fibular nerve (posterior).
83
Superficial peroneal nerve
Where head of fibula is.
| Damage to nerve causes foot drop appearance.
84
What muscles allow you to move your ankle outwards
Fibularis longus
Fibularis brevis
Tertius tendon
85
Multiple sclerosis
Patients effected by nerve roots to different areas in skin.
It is an autoimmune system, attacking myelin sheath, so communication signal slows down. They lose sensation of sections in skin.
86
Describe the somatic and autonomic division
Somatic = motor supply to somatic/skeletal musculature
Voluntary
Autonmic - involuntary, supply visceral smooth muscle and glands. Divides into sympathetic and parasympathetic
87
What is innervation of thorax and abdomen
mainly sympathetic,
88
saliva production
parasympathetic, it follows stimulus of vagus nerve. Vagus nerve innervates gut all the way to splenic flexture. Splanchnic nerves, mesenteric nerves, help digestion.
89
Chordia equina syndrome
Paralysed from a level down because of compression on spinal cord. tHEY WILL GET INCONTINENCE, HAVE HAVE LOST CONTROL of what is going on.
90
Where do the urinary and reproductive systems come from?
They come from the intermediate mesoderm
91
What are the 3 components of the upper and lower female genital tracts?
Upper: ovaries; uterus; fallopian tube
Lower: labia minora/majora
92
What is the function of the uterus?
Secondary sex organ, so development occurs during puberty under the influence of sex hormones; responsible for the maintenance and transportation of gametes. In pregnancy: it allows protection and support for the foetus.
93
what are the 2 main subdivisions of the uterus?
3; fundus, body and cervix (body might include fundus_
94
What is meant by internal os and external os?
External os: marks the transition from the ectocervix to the endocervical canal
95
what is meant by version and flexion of the uterus?
Flexion: the bending of the uterus on itself (angle between the longitudinal axis of cervix, and that of the vagina)
Version: The displacement of the entire organ forwards or backwards (is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the uterus and that of the cervix)
Normal position: anteverted and ante flexed.
96
What are the important relations of uterus?
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Anterior = bladder
posterior = rectum
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97
What are the ligaments which support the uterus?
Broad ligament: a sheet of peritoneum associated with both the uterus and ovaries.
Mesovarium, meso metrium, meso salpinx
98
What is the ovarian ligament, what is the suspensory ligament of the ovary?
Ovarian ligament: attached to the ovary inferiorly. It connects the ovary to the side of the uterus.
Suspensory ligaments: extends outwards from the ovary to the lateral abdominal wall.
99
What are the meso ovarium and meso salpinx?
Both are divisions of the broad ligament. Meso-ovarium projects from the posterior surface of the broad ligament and attaches to the hilum of the ovary, enclosing the neurovascular supply. It does not, however, occur on the surface of the ovary itself.
Mesosalpinx, originates superiorly to mesovarium, enclosing the fallopian tubes.
100
What is the blood supply of the uterus? from which artery does this arise?
Uterine iliac artery, comes from internal iliac artery
101
Name 4 parts of uterine tube
Ampulla (widest section of the uterine tubes)
Fimbrae -ciliated projections
Infundibulum -funnel shaped
isthmus-narrow section
102
Which life threatening condition is associated with the uterine tube?
Ectopic pregnancy, may occur after salpingitis (inflammation of the uterine tubes, usually from bacterial infection)
103
Where does ovarian blood supply come from?
Abdominal aorta
104
Where do ovarian veins drain to?
Right IVC
| Left left renal vein
105
fornix of vagina?
superior portion of vagina extending to cervix.
106
what is the relationship of the posterior fornix with the abdominal cavity?
It is close to the recto-uterine pouch. Furthest point down so site where infection and fluids typically collect.
107
What is the prepuce?
fold of skin surrounding the clit
108
What is the hymen?
A membrane that surrounds of partially covers the external vaginal opening
109
Where is the ostia of lesser vestibular (skenes)?
Around the lower end of the urethra
110
Where is the greater vestibular (Bartholins) glands?
slightly posterior and laterally to the opening of the vagina
111
What is the function of the testes? (how many sperm are produced, daily?
site of sperm production and hormone synthesis, over 300 mill sperm.
112
What is the testicular blood supply?
Testicular arteries from abdominal aorta
113
What structure passes through prostate gland, from base to apex?
Urethra.
114
What are the ejaculatory ducts formed by?
Formed by the union of the bas deferens
115
What are the 2 main divisions of the penis
Shaft and glans
116
What are the 3 cylindrical structures that form the penis
Corpus cavernosa x2, and corpus spongiosum x1
117
Which structure expands, distally, to form the glans penis?
Corpus spongiosum.
118
what fills with blood during an erection
Corpus cavernosa
119
what kidney is lower and why
right kidney is lower because of liver being above
120
What is the arrangement of structures in hilum of kidney?
Renal artery, vein, ureter
121
What are the important relations of the ureters
ureters are retro peritoneal
122
How do ureters enter the bladder? What is uteric reflux
Obliquely. When urine flows retrograde back up the bladder, sometimes all the way back up to the kidney, can lead to infection.
123
Define the function of the bladder
Storage of urine (600ml); expulsion os urine from the body
124
What is meant by the bladder 'trigone' and which structures enter/leave it?
The smooth area between the 2 ureters and urethra it is sensitive to expansion.
125
What are the 3 parts of male urethra
Prostatic 3cm, membranous 1cm, spongy/penile 16cm
126
what do the uncoiled and coiled structures of wolffian duct form?
coiled=epididymis
| uncoiled=vas deferens, transports sperm through prosthetic urethra for ejaculation
127
What is the chorion frondosum?
The developing placenta
128
What is the chorion laeve
Tissue developing over the embryo
129
What 2 things fuse to form the uterine cavity?
Descidua capsularis fuses with decidua parietalis
130
What allows testes to attach to posterior abdominal wall?
Urogenital mesentary
131
Describe the descent of testes through the inguinal canal
Testes descend through inguinal ring.
As the gubernaculum grows towards the scrotal swellings, the testes follows to its course. Factors controlling descent could be increase in intra abdominal pressure due to organ growth, influence of hormones, and regression of extra abdominal portion of gubernaculum.
By 28 weeks, testes reach deep inguinal ring, they then go through inguinal canal to take up their final division in scrotum.
132
What is retained testes
This descent may get arrested in abdomen or inguinal canal. This condition is called retained testes, results in infertility.
133
What is the muscle that makes up the scrotum?
Non striated dartos muscle
134
Describe the positioning of the poles of the testes
Upper pole is tilted anterolaterally, lower pole is tilted posteromedially
135
What is name of membrane that covers testes
Tunica vaginalis -between the 2 layers of the tunica vaginalis there is a thin film of fluid which can expand creating a hydrocele
136
what is the muscle of the spermatic cord?
cremaster muscle, a type of smooth muscle
137
Describe the anal triangle?
Contains anal canal and 2 ischiolateral fossa
From the first triangle arises the corpus spongiosum
From pubic bone arises the corpus cavernosa
138
Describe the ventricular system of CNS
VENTRICLES ARE WHERE CSF is, it helps lubricate everything. Headache occurs when CSF utilises too much glucose in brain, when you are dehydrated or if you have meningitis. There are 4 ventricles: lateral ventricle, third ventricle, fourth ventricle, and central canal of the medulla oblongata and spinal cord
139
What is the choroid plexus
choroid plexus consists of cells lying throughout the 4 ventricles and produces CSF. It calcifies around 20 but there is a continual overflow as we get older.
140
What is a sulcus?
Crevicle/trench on the brain surface
141
What is a gyrus
Ridge on the brain surface,
142
what is a foramina
whole to allow structures to pass through
143
choroid plexus?
lines the ventricle system in brain, production sight of CSF
144
What is the falx cerebri
longitudinal crescent-shaped fold of meningeal layer of dura mater between the cerebral hemispheres.
-separation of the 2 hemispheres, come all the way back to occipital. It contains the frontal part of brain and all olfactory receptors sitting in this level.
145
What is a ventricle?
system filled with CSF in the brain
146
What is a sinus?
sac/cavity in organ or tissue, eg) frontal sinus, cavity containing air
147
What is sella turcica
saddle shaped depression (Turkish saddle) in sphenoid bone, housing pituitary gland
148
Cerebrum
Brain, upper most region of nervous system, containing white and grey matter
149
Cerebellum?
little brain, situated at the back of the brain (hind brain)
Checks for balance, for hand movement and coordination.
150
Meninges
membrane layers covering the brain, consisting of dura, arachnoid and pia layers
151
Skull
22 bones, 8 form cranium-parietal, frontal, occipital, temporal
14 form face
152
what are sutures?
fibrous joints within the skull, fuse after 2 years of birth
153
what is the cabella
top part of nose, where glasses are
154
what is the cribiform plate
The cribriform plate is a sieve-like structure between the anterior cranial fossa and the nasal cavity. It is a part of ethmoid bone and supports the olfactory bulb, which lies in the olfactory fossa.
155
what structures go through cribiform plate
optic cranial nerve for olfactic smell
156
What is tentorium cerebelli
The cerebellar tentorium or tentorium cerebelli (Latin for "tent of the cerebellum") is an extension of the dura mater that separates the cerebellum from the inferior portion of the occipital lobe
157
Layers of the brain
DAP
Dural layer
Subdural
Arachnoid-has CSF, hence this area is space-chordae equina is a safe area because it has all the CSF
Pia- a continuation of spinal cord, innermost layer, lines everything within actual brain.
158
Describe arachnoid mater
Where our blood brain barrier is. CSF directly connects to blood. -this is why certain drugs can cross and work and others can't, depends on lipophilic property of membrane
159
What are the major parts of the brain
Frontal lobe-for mood & personality
Temporal - listening
Parietal layer
Cortex -sensation, motor cortex, separate from frontal to parietal lobes
Cerebellum, balance, dexterity, coordinate
160
what is pons
bridge-connection from spinal cord to brain, it is where other cranial nerves that branch from that area are. It has 2 pairs of cranial nerves coming off
161
corpus callosum
highway for our information, many fibres go through this area.
162
Diencephalon
Control of homeostasis, have pituitary gland linkage, for connection of anterior and posterior parts.
163
Describe the thalamus and hypothalamus
Thalamus and hypothalamus are surrounded by CSF.
164
Describe the choroid plexus
2 nerves sit on top of the choroid plexus, the iptic nerve
165
Consequence of pituitary tumours
People see double vision, because tumour expands, pushes up the cranial nerves, this has an effect on cranial nerve for vision
166
mid brain
medulla, control centre for respiratory and cardiac control
167
Brocas area
produces speech
168
Vernicas
Auditory area, on temporal lobe
169
Describe the layers of scalp
```
Skin
Connective tissue
Aponeurosis
Loose areolar tissue
Pericranium
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170
What are the sinuses of the skull?
We have the superior saggital sinus-veins
Sigmoidal sinus, at the back of the mastoid process. It is where blood from brain collects, directly down to join your external jugular veins.
Inferior saggital sinus,
171
How are veins in brain connected?
Veins are connected with the arachnoid granulations, these granulations are out pouches to alow changes to happen between CSF and blood. They are highly vascularised, rich and an important area for medications for meningitis.
172
Why do the veins in brain not have valves
Can cause stasis, and reduce blood flow
173
What artery is mostly effected by strokes
Basiler artery, area effect by strokes or vascular dementia
174
What is meningitis?
Inflammation of meninges (meningeal cochal loss), causes meningitus. Meningeal membrane will have inflammation because of bacteria, it will fire off chemicals to be transported to rest of brain, and then rest of body, because we have blood brain barrier. This is why you can get a stiff neck. Bacteria loves glucose, will grow with glucose and oxygen.
-There is acute inflammation of the arachnoid and pia with thick, creamy exudate (pus) filling the subarachnoid space and surrounding the vessels.
175
Ventricular system
Fluid passes between lateral ventricles into 3rd ventricle, into 4th ventricle. 4th vntricle is split between cerebellum and cerebrum. 3rd ventricle is where hypothalamus is, it parts the blood brain barrier.
-Each part of the brain contains a fluid filled cavity or channel corresponding to the lumen of the embryonic neural tube. This gives rise to the ventricular system.
The large C shaped cavities in each cerebral hemisphere are the lateral ventricles. These drain via the two interventricular foramina (foramina of Monro) to a single, slit like third ventricle which is located in midline, between the two egg shaped thalami (plural of thalamus).
The diamond shaped fourth ventricle lies between the brainstem anteriorly and the cerebellum behind. The third and fourth ventricles are connected by the narow cerebral aqeuduct of the midbrain.
176
Describe the olfactory nerve
smell, 80-120 nerves in cribiform plate, hence if you get a cold, it will effect this nerve, causing sniffles.
177
What are the 2 cranial nerves from brainstem?
Olfactory nerve
| Optic nerve chiasm
178
Describe the structures of the brainstem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
179
Describe the vagus nerve
CN10 gets everywhere. Important for sympathetic & parasympathetic nerves of body
180
What nerves are olfactory and optic and vagus
Olfactory is CN1
Optic is CNII
Vagus is CNX
181
What are syndesmosis?
fibrous joints, between 22 bones of the skull
182
What are the major parts of the brain?
```
The cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres)-largest part of human brain, seat of personality, memory and intelligence.
the cerebellum, with its paired cerebellar hemispheres-it is concerned with balance, muscular co-ordination and dexterity
The brainstem, to which the cerebrum and cerebellum are attached. Brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata.. This is critical for normal conscious awareness and basic 'life support' functions (eg control of breathing and blood pressure).
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Where are the
longitudinal fissures
transverse fissures
lateral sulcus
longitudinal fissures are between 2 cerebral hemispheres
transverse fissures between the cerebrum and cerebellum
lateral sulcus between the frontal and temporal lobes
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What do these 4 lobes contain?
Frontal lobe contains the primary motor cortex
Parietal lobe contains the primary somatic sensory cortex
Occipital lobe contains the primary visual cortex
Temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex
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What are the folds of the brain called and what are they separated by?
Called Gyri and separated by grooves (sulci)
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What are the 3 membranes of the brain
The dura mater (roubust and leathery), and is tightly adherent to bone, remains attached to inside of skull. It has 2 folds, the falx cerebri separating the interval between the two cerebral hemispheres, and the tentorium cerebelli, which is a second dural partition interposed between the cerebrum and cerebellum. The dura can separate into two layers, creating a channel filled with venous blood. These are dural venous sinuses, and are valveless. They receive blood from the brain, and can cause bleeding between the skull and the dura mater, which can cause life threatening pressure on the brain.
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What are the dural venous sinuses
The dura can separate into two layers, creating a channel filled with venous blood. These are dural venous sinuses, and are valveless. They receive blood from the brain, and can cause bleeding between the skull and the dura mater, which can cause life threatening pressure on the brain.
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Describe the arachnoid and pia membranes
Arachnoid is semi transparent, so you can see the cortical vessels beneath it, in the subarachnoid space.
Bleeding into the sub arachnoid space can cause sudden death.
The delicate pia mater closely invests the cortical surface and cannot be identified separately.
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What secretes CSF
Choroid plexus: a high vascular structure within each ventricle. CSF flows towards the fourth ventricle before escaping via three openings (median aperture and 2 lateral aperture) to reach the subarachnoid space.
CSF is continuously reabsorbed into the superior sagittal sinus (one of the dural venous sinuses). The rate of absorption matches the rate of production, keeping the CSF volume and pressure constant.
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Describe the structure of the brainstem
The brainstem is composed of the midbrain, pons and medulla, from which 10 out of the 12 cranial nerves arise.
Medulla contains 2 longitudinally-disposed pyramids on either side of the midline. These contain voluntary motor fibres descending from the frontal lobes to the spinal cord. Damage would therefore cause weakness or paralysis. The pons is just above the medulla.
The midbrain is small. From the anterior aspect it resembles the cerebral peduncles, separated by the interpeduncular fossa.
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Describe the olfactory, optic and cranial nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, two arise from the cerebral hemispheres, ten are attached to the brain stem. The olfactory nerve targets the olfactory bulb and tract. The optic nerve is the nerve of vision. The two optic nerves unite at the chiasm, then divide again to become the optic tracts. This chiasm is situated just above the pituitary gland.
The vagus nerve innervates the muscles of speech and swallowing (pharynx and larynx) and is the parasympathetic nerve of the thorax and abdomen to the level of the splenic flexure of the colon, whereafter the parasympathetic innervation is from the sacral outflow in the pelvic splanchnic nerves (S2, 3, 4).
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What is a muscle?
A band or bundle of fibrous tissue in a human or animal body that has the ability to contract, producing movement in, or maintaining the position of parts of the body.
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What is a tendon?
A flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.
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What is an aponeurosis?
A sheet of fibrous tissue which takes the place of a tendon in sheet like muscles having a wide area of attachment.
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What factors can we use to classify muscles?
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Orientation of muscle fibres
action
shape,
position in the body
number of heads (proximal attachments)
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What is an origin and an insertion
Origin- proximal end (usually) that remains fixed during contraction (flex your biceps to view this).
Insertion-distal end (usually) of muscle that is moveable.
Sternocleidomastoid muscle: origin - manubrium and medial portion of the clavicle. Insertion is mastoid process of temporal bone.
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Unipennate muscle
Fibres arranged to insert in a diagonal direction onto tendon. Allows greater strength. For example, palmar interosseous
Extensor digitorum
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Bipennate
Two rows of muscle fibres, facing in opposite diagonal directions, with central tendon, like a feather. Greater power but less range of motion. Eg Rectus femoris
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Multipennate
Multiple rows of diagonal fibres, with central tendon which branches into two or more tendons. Eg deltoid: jas three sections (anterior, middle and posterior)
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Fusiform
These muscles are more spindle shaped, with large muscle belly which is wider than the origin and insertion
Eg biceps brachii
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Circular
Muscle appear circular in shape and are normally sphincter muscles which surround an opening such as the mouth and eyes. Eg, orbicularis oculi (eyes) and orbicularis oris (mouth)
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Convergent
Muscles where origin is wider than the point of insertion. Allowed for maximum force production. Pectoralis major, origin sternum and clavicle, insertion is humorous.
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Parallel
Fibres run parallel to each other, eg sartorius
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Strap
Muscle that have parallel orientation, bit specific to the neck. Infrahyoid muscles (group of 4 muscles that are located inferior to the hyoid bone, eg sternohyoid).
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Agonist
Main muscle producing a specific movement (prime mover)
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Antagonist
Opposes the action of the agonist (relaxes when agonist contracts)
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Fixator
Steadies the proximal part of the limb when a more distal part is being moved. For the bicep curl this would be rotator cuff
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Synergist
Complements the action of the agonist. Brachioradialis which assists biceps and stabilises the elbow joint
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Tibialis anterior-which way does the joint move when this muscle contracts
Dorsiflexion and inversion
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Rectus femoris which way does the joint move when this muscle contracts
knee extension and hip flexion
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Gatrocnemius (calf muscle)
plantar flexion
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Biceps brachii
flexes elbow and shoulder; supinates
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Biceps femoris
part of the hamstring (extend the hip and flex the knee)
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Triceps brachii
(extension of the arm at the elbow)
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Quadriceps femoris
(knee extension, hip flexion)
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If biceps brachii contracts, which group of muscles are the
Agonists: briceps brachii
Antagonists: triceps brachii
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If biceps femoris contracts, which group of muscles are the agoniss and antagonists
Agonists: biceps femoris Antagonists: quadriceps muscle
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What are the 3 gluteal muscles
And what is the name of the nerve situated in that area? -if this structure is irritates or impinged, what condition does it cause?
Gluteus maximus
Gluteus Medius
Gluteus Minimus
Sciatic nerve -sciatica (pain radiating down the leg)
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What are the longest, smallest and strongest muscle in body
Longest-sartorius muscle
Shortest-Stapedium (smallest skeletal muscle) stabilises the stapes (smallest bone in body)
Strongest-masseter
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What bony structure do the hamstring muscles originate from?
Ischial tuberosity (short head of bicep femoris originates from posterior femur)
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Where do the hamstrings insert
Head of fibular, medial tibial condyle, medial surface of the tibia
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name the number of heads of these muscles and their primary action
Biceps brachii
Triceps brachii
Quadriceps
Biceps femoris
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Biceps brachii 2 heads, flexion at the elbow
Triceps brachii, 3 heads, extends of the elbow
Quadriceps, 4, extends the knee
Biceps femoris, 2, flexion at the knee
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What type of bone is the patella, which muscular structure passes over it to insert below it, and where does it insert on the tibia
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Sesamoid bone (bone embedded within a tendon or a muscle)
Quadriceps pass over it to insert below it onto the tuberosity of the tibia.
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What is the name of the gene that develops limbs, nerve supply and movement related things
sonic gene
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what is extensor muscle
muscle with opposite effect is the extensor muscle. It opens a joint, increasing angles between components of a limb, eg when extending arm, bicep = flexor
tricep=extensor
In the upper limb only, all flexors are at the front
In the lower limb, all flexors are at the back,
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Skeletal muscle
voluntary, striated, involved in locomotion and movement of joints.
Multi nucleated, contain a number of myofibrils, there is a calcium, troponin link. Skeletal myofibres are surrounded by a sacrolemma (cell membrane), contain sacroplasm and contractile myofibrils. If you start to overuse mucles, you get hypertrophy, which means enlargement).
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Cardiac muscle
Self producing, myocytes, self beating/pumping. Involuntary striated (myofilaments) muscle
Forms most of the walls of the chambers of the heart
Has intrinsic ability to contract via calcium, too much calcium, heart goes into over drive. Resistant to fatigue, because it is self producing
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Smooth muscle
Involuntary, decided by CNS and ANS. It is unstriated, and visceral, found in walls of vessels and hollow organs. Sphincters are smooth muscles, allowing passage of contents to help flow. Undergo peristaltic contractions to move contents.
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tendon
attachment from muscle directly to bone
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Attachments of muscle
where muscle starts to grow-origin
| isertion is where it inserts, and belly is the middle bit.
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Tendon
muscle attachment to bone. Tough and rope like.
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Aponeurosis
connective tissue btween bone, reinforces sheet of muscles, allows movement of bone. Eg allows movement of eyebrows, connects tissue to scalp. If you flex your arm, you can feel bicep moving and aponeurosis which allows you to move. Aponeurosis is made up of layers of delicate thin sheaths, which separate muscles from one another also.
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Hamstring muscle o
origin for hamstring muscle-ischial tuberosity. Insertion is in the lateral aspects-tendon sheath underneath.
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Biceps femoris
These are 3 hamstring muscles, extends, strenghtens hip, and flex and bend the knee.
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Biceps
2 heads. Bicep has aponeurosis, sheet that attaches from one muscle to another, to allow you to pronate and supinate. Insertion of bicep= radial tuberosity. Origin of bicep: has 2 origins-because it has 2 heads:
-Short head originates at caracoid process, at scapula
-Long head, originates above shoulder joint, at supraglenoid tubercle.
Top of bicep inserts into arm of rotator cuffs, allowing you to rotate arm.
Bicep attaches on that cavity, allows movement. It is shallow and can dislocate easily, compared to hips.
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Function of tendons
Attach muscle to bone
Allow muscle bulk to be situated away from its site of action
can withstand compression, allow muscle to pull 'round corners'
reserve energy and resist heat.
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What is the name of tendon at foot?
Calcanea tendon
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what muscles keep neck and throat upright?
Strap muscle
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What is fusiform
Within hand and palm, have aponeurosis, flexor tendons go into fingers, tendons are tough.
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Adductor
muscle that pulls body part toward the midline, eg adductor muscle of legs pull legs towards midline so they are closer to each other
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Abductor
Opposes adductor muscle
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What nerve is found near triceps?
Radial nerve
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Compartment syndrome
Limb muscles can be grouped into compartments. If there is a swelling after you cut a particular vein, then you get pain and swelling but only in that compartment. Swelling can expand and you can get necrosis.
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Describe venous blood flow through compartments
Venous return is aided by the pressure from the connective tissue sleeve, when the muscles contract.Muscles in a compartment work together to produce movement.
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Describe flexion and extension
Flexion is decreasing angle of a joint, bending joint
| Extension is increasing angle of a joint, straightening the joint
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Dorsiflexion
Decreasing angle of the ankle joint, move toes down
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Plantarflexion
Increasing angle of ankle joint, move toes up
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Elevation
Moving body part in superior direction, moving shoulders up
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Depression
moving body part in inferior direction.
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Eversion
Rotating angle, so sole of foot points away from the other
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Inversion
Rotating the angle so that the sole of the foot points towards the other.
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Abduction
Moving a limb away from midline of body
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Adduction
Moving a limb towards the midline of body
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Lateral rotation
rotating limb away from centre (midline) of body
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Medial rotation
Rotating a limb towards the centre line (midline) of body
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Retraction
movement of arm from shoulder towards back of body,
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protraction
movement of arm towards front of body
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Lateral flexion
bending spine to side, away from centre of body
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supination
Palm moves to face roof
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pronation
movement of palm to face feet
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What structure expands to form the glans penis ?
Corpus spongiosum
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What are the approximate dimensions of the kidney
10-13cm, linger on left
5 wide
2.4 cm depth
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Where does Apex of bladder point to?
Pubic symphysis
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What are the 3 parts of male urethra and what is the length of each part
Prostatic is 3cm
Membranous is 1cm
Spongy/penile is 16cm
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Route of vas deferens
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Through epididymis
Passes bladder
Into seminal vesicles
Into prostate
Joints urethra which is coming from bladder into prostate
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What is introitus of vagina
Basically the whole bit of the private part, surrounded by the vestibule
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What is the urethral meatus?
Urethra, found in glans of clit
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What is the vestibule
Space between labia minora
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What is the greater tubercle and what is the lesser tubercle
Greater tubercle is larger and distal part of humerus in anatomical position
Lesser tubercle is smaller and proximal part of humerus
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What does spiral groove of humerus contain ?
Radial nerve
| Causing wrist drop to occur
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Describe the Saggital, coronal and lambdoid suture
Saggital is transverse (left right separation of skull)
Coronal separates frontal bone from parietal
Lambdoid suture separates the occipital bones from parietal bones
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What and where is foramen magnum
It a hole in occipital bone at base of skull, through which spinal cord passes
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The hip joint (head of femur articulating with acetabulum) is deeper than the articulation of the head of humerus with the glenoid cavity of scapula. What are the consequences of this?
Not as mobile as shoulder joints
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How many phalanges do toes and fingers have?
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3 phalanges
Proximal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Distal phalanx
Except the big toe which only has 2
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What is the tough band of fibrous tissue that connects muscle to bone
Tendon
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What are the 2 fossas of the humerus
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Radial fossa (small)
Coronoid fossa (large)
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What are epicondyles
Points outside the joint, often where ligaments are attached
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What are the ejaculatory ducts and where do they open?
Formed by the union of the vas deferens with the duct of the seminal vesicles. Open into the urethra
