Anatomy And Physiology Flashcards
(297 cards)
1
Q
What are the essential foundations of veterinary technology
A
Anatomy and physiology
2
Q
The science of the structure of the body amd the relation of its parts
A
Anatomy
3
Q
The science of how the body functions
A
Physiology
4
Q
The basic unit of life
A
A cell
5
Q
Cells are either
A
Prokaryotes or eukaryotes
6
Q
A cell that lacks a true membrane bound nucleus and organelles. Ex: all bacteria
A
Prokaryotes
7
Q
All bacteria are what type of cell
A
Prokaryotes
8
Q
A cell that has a membrane bound nucleus and contains many different membrane bound organelles
A
eukaryote
9
Q
All multicellular organisms are made of what type of cells
A
eukaryotes
10
Q
eukaryotes are made of what 3 main parts
A
cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
11
Q
What are some characteristics of a cell membrane?
A
- Separates the cell from its external environment
- Consists of a double phospholipid bilayer with interspersed proteins
- Semipermeable
- Some have surface modifications
12
Q
What are some components of the phospholipid bilayer
A
- Proteins
- Carbohydrate chains
- Cholesterol
13
Q
What are some examples of surface modifications of a phospholipid bilayer
A
- Cilia
- Flagellum
- Microvilli
14
Q
These organelles float freely or are attached to endoplasmic reticulum
A
Ribosomes
15
Q
These organelles are composed of protein and rRNA
A
Ribosomes
16
Q
This organelle is the site of protein synthesis
A
Ribosomes
17
Q
This organelle is considered the powerhouse of the cell
A
Mitochondria
18
Q
This organelle contains protein and mitochondrial DNA
A
Mitochondria
19
Q
This organelle has a double membrane
A
Mitochondria
20
Q
This organelle has an outer and inner membrane. The inner membrane extends into folds called
A
Cristae
21
Q
Cristae increase surface area for the production of _____
A
ATP
22
Q
ATP is produced through the process of cellular respiration called ______, _______, or _______
A
Krebs cycle, citric acid cycle, or tricarboxylic acid cycle
23
Q
Cells that use large amounts of energy have large amounts of what organelle?
A
Mitochondria
24
Q
This organelle is a hollow system of flattened membranous channels with attached ribosomes and acts as a transportation network for proteins
A
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
25
This organelle is a hollow system of flattened membranous channels without ribosomes and is NOT involved in. Protein synthesis
Smooth ER
26
What organelle is important for synthesizing cholesterol, steroid based hormones, and lipids, important in drug detox, breakdown of glycogen, and transport of fats
Smooth ER
27
Liver cells, intestinal cells, and interstitial cells of testes all have large amounts of this organelle
Smooth ER
28
Organelles that have stacked saucer shaped membranes that function as a receiving, packaging, and distribution center
Golgi complex
29
What organelle modifies and synthesizes the carb portion of glycoproteins
Golgi complex
30
Packaged substances received from ER and exports them from the cell or releases them into the cytoplasm for internal use
Golgi complex
31
This organelle produces lysosomes
Golgi complex
32
Organelle that contains digestive enzymes that can digest intracellular bacteria and can break down non functional organelles
Lysosomes
33
The principal organelles in digestion of nutrients
Lysosomes
34
Autolysis occurs if enzymes from this organelle are released into the cytoplasm
Lysosomes
35
Large numbers of these organelles are found in phagocytic cells
Lysosomes
36
membrane bound organelles that contain strong oxidase and catalase enzymes
peroxisomes
37
this organelle uses oxygen to detoxify toxic substances, especially alcohol and formaldehyde
peroxisomes
38
these organelles are very important in converting free radicals into hydrogen peroxide
peroxisomes
39
a large number of these organelles are found in liver and kidney cells
peroxisomes
40
organelles consist of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments, which are all made of proteins
cytoskeleton
41
this provides an elaborate internal framework that gives the cell form, structure, and support; anchors organelles; and enables movement
cytoskeleton
42
microtubules are arranged to form a hollow tube
centrioles
43
these are important in organizing the mitotic spindle
centrioles
44
form the base of cilia and flagella
centrioles
45
this is considered the control center of the cell
nucleus
46
this contains DNA, which governs heredity and protein synthesis
nucleus
47
____ is in the form of chromatin in the non dividing cell and in the form of chromosomes in the dividing cell
DNA
48
what organelle has a double, semipermeable nuclear membrane or envelope
nucleus
49
contains one or more nucleoli, which manufacture the ribosomal units
nucleus
50
a substance that can be dissolved
solute
51
a substance that does the dissolving
solvent
52
when the solute has dissolved and is no longer distinguishable from the solvent (a uniform mixture)
solution
53
within a cell
intracellular
54
outside of the cell
extracellular
55
between cells (interstitial)
intercellular
56
no energy is expended by the cell
passive processes
57
movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration
diffusion
58
oxygen enters a cell and carbon dioxide exits a cell by simple diffusion through the lipid layer of the cell membrane
diffusion
59
this type of diffusion has the aid of carrier proteins. Glucose enters the cell through this method
facilitated diffusion
60
movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration
osmosis
61
water constantly moves in and out of the cell by this method
osmosis
62
this is amount of pressure necessary to stop the flow of water across the membrane
osmotic pressure
63
substances are forced through a membrane by hydrostatic pressure; small solutes pass through; larger molecules do not
filtration
64
_____ is important in kidney function
filtration
65
in this process, energy is expended by the cell
active processes
66
when materials are taken into the cell
endocytosis
67
called 'cell eating' where the cell membrane extends around solid particles
phagocytosis
68
some white blood cells and macrophages are _______
phagocytic
69
considered the 'bulk phase' or 'cell drinking' where the cell membrane extends around fluid droplets
pinocytosis
70
______ is an important process in absorptive cells in small intestine
pinocytosis
71
______ specialized membrane receptors bind to substances entering the cell
receptor-mediated
72
by what method do enzymes, insulin, hormones, iron, and cholesterol enter the cell
receptor-mediated
73
process where materials are expelled by the cell
exocytosis
74
in this process, waste products are excreted, and useful products are secreted into the extracellular space
exocytosis
75
by why method are hormones, neurotransmitters, and mucus released by the cell
exocytosis
76
movement of molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration with the aid of carrier proteins
active transport
77
what's an example of an active transport pump within cell membranes, most ions and amino acids move into cells by this method
sodium-potassium pump
78
____ where extracellular fluid is less concentrated than the intracellular fluid
hypotonic
79
extracellular fluid is more concentrated than the intracellular fluid
hypertonic
80
concentrations of the extracellular and intracellular fluids are equal
isotonic
81
Red blood cells placed into a hypotonic solution do what?
gain water through osmosis and burst
82
red blood cells placed into a hypertonic solution do what
lose water through osmosis and shrink
83
red blood cells placed into an isotonic solution do what
remain unchanged because osmotic pressures are equal
84
____ are groups of similar cells with related functions
tissues
85
the study of tissues
histology or microanatomy
86
what are the four primary types of tissues
1. epithelial
2. connective
3. muscle
4. nervous
87
this tissue covers the body surface, lines body cavities, and forms the active part of glands
epithelial tissue
88
the functions of this tissue are protection, secretion, excretion, filtration, absorption of nutrients, and receipt of sensory information
epithelial tissue
89
This tissue can form simple (one cell layer) or stratified (more than one cell layer) tissue
epithelial tissue
90
what are the subtypes of epithelial tissues
1. squamous epithelium
2. cuboidal epithelium
3. columnar epithelium
4. pseudostratified columnar epithelium
5. transitional epithelium
6. glandular epithelium
91
This tissue has flat, thin, plate-like cells.
The simple type of this tissue lines blood vessels, alveoli of lungs, and thoracic and abdominal cavities.
The stratified type of this tissue is found in areas of wear:
- nonkeratinized types line the mouth, esophagus, vagina, and rectum
- keratinized types makes up the epidermis
squamous epithelium
92
This subtype of tissue is identified by sub shaped cells.
Simple type is important in absorption and secretion; forms the active part of glands and small ducts, ovary surface, and kidney tubules.
Stratified type is fairly rare but lines the ducts of sweat, salivary, and mammary glands.
cuboidal epithelium
93
This tissue type is identified by tall, rectangular cells.
Simple type lines the digestive tract from stomach to rectum and is important for absorption and secretion; these cells also have a surface modification known as microvilli and are associated with mucus secreting cells known as goblet cells.
Simple type with cilia lines bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus.
Stratified type is relatively rare but is found in mammary ducts and portions of the male urethra.
Columnar epithelium
94
This tissue type appears to be more than one layer, but all cells touch the basal membrane.
These are usually ciliated and often associated with goblet cells; found in the respiratory tract
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
95
This tissue type may resemble both cuboidal and squamous shapes depending on the thickness of the organ but is found in areas where a great degree of distention is needed such as the urinary bladder, ureters, and part of the urethra. (i.e. cuboidal when bladder is empty and squamous when bladder is full)
transitional epithelium
96
This tissue type is highly specialized with the ability to secrete various products.
It is classified as endocrine or exocrine.
glandular epithelium
97
ductless and secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream (estrogen secreted by ovaries)
endocrine
98
have ducts and secrete onto an epithelial surface (sweat glands)
exocrine
99
This tissue is widely distributed throughout the body and composed of three elements: cells, fibers, and matrix (ground substance)
connective tissue
100
_____ tissue has a variety of functions depending on tissue type ( connects and supports, protects, insulates, transports fluids, and stores energy)
connective
101
these fibers are long, straight, very strong white fibers composed of collagen
collagen fibers
102
these fibers are long, thin, branching, stretchable yellow fibers composed of elastin
elastic fibers
103
these fibers are fine collagen fibers in a complex network
reticular fibers
104
There are many different cell types depending on the tissue.
Immature and active cells have the suffix _____
Mature cells have the suffix ______
Cells that break down substances have the suffix ____
- blast
- cyte
- clast
105
what two categories are connective tissues divided into
connective tissue proper and specialized connective tissue and their subtypes
106
what are the three types of muscle tissue
skeletal
smooth
cardiac
107
this type of muscle tissue has
- voluntary control
- long, parallel striated fibers with multiple nuclei located at their periphery
- attaches to and moves bones
skeletal
108
this type of muscle tissue has
- involuntary control
- spindle-shaped, smooth cells with a centrally located nucleus
- found in the walls of hollow organs
- lacks bony attachments
smooth
109
this type of muscle tissue has
- involuntary control
- long, striated cells that are joined at points known as intercalated discs; have a single, centrally located nucleus
- found only in the heart
cardiac
110
This tissue is specialized for conducting electrical impulses.
The major locations are brain, spinal cord, and nerves
They are known by two major cell types: neurons, neuroglial cells
nervous tissue
111
Give examples of connective tissue proper
loose (areolar, adipose, reticular)
| dense (regular, irregular, elastic)
112
this is the most widely distributed connective tissue that supports organs, protects and provides flexibility for all three fiber types
Fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white blood cells
areolar
113
this connective tissue insulates, protects, and cushions
| reserve energy composed of fat cells
adipose
114
this connective tissue is supportive tissue and is found in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow. network of fine reticular fibers, macrophages, and fibroblasts
reticular connective tissue proper
115
Give examples of specialized tissue
cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage)
bone (compact /dense)
blood (spongy/ cancellous)
116
This is a dense connective tissue such as tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses. collagen fibers arranged in a parallel pattern and fibroblasts provide strong attachments
regular dense tissue
117
this dense connective tissue is found in dermis of the skin, organ capsules, joint capsules. collagen fibers arranged in an irregular pattern, elastic fibers, fibroblasts. provides strength and support to areas experiencing tension from all directions
irregular dense connective tissue
118
this dense connective tissue is found in ligaments that contain more elastic fibers than collagen; nuchal ligament in horse's neck
elastic dense connective tissue
119
this specialized cartilaginous tissue is found in nose, trachea, larynx, embryonic skeleton, costal cartilage, articular cartilage. collagen fibers and chondrocytes support with some flexibility
hyaline cartilage
120
this specialized cartilage is found in pinna, auditory canal, epiglottis, elastic fibers. provides shape and great flexibility
elastic cartilage
121
this specialized cartilage is found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, disc in stifle, thick collagen fibers, and chondrocytes. provides strong support
fibrocartilage
122
this bone tissue is found in bones, collagen fibers, osteocytes, and calcified matrix. supports, protects, houses blood-producing tissue; stores calcium and other minerals
compact (dense)
123
this blood tissue is found in lattice like bone structure.
| erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes, plasma
spongy cancellous blood tissue
124
______ are made up of more than one tissue, which is usually a type of epithelial tissue attached to a type of connective tissue
membrane
125
What are the three types of membranes
1. mucous
2. serous
3. cutaneous
126
This type of membranes line cavities that ultimately connect to the exterior of the body
mucous membrane
127
This type of membrane is usually stratified, squamous, or simple columnar epithelium attached to loos connective tissue known as lamina propria
mucous membrane
128
lamina propria is an example of what type of membrane
mucous membrane
129
these membranes are adapted to absorb and secrete; normally secrete mucus, which lubricates both the respiratory, digestive, and urogenital pathways
mucous membranes
130
This type of membrane lines body cavities but does not connect to the exterior of the body
serous membrane
131
this type of membrane is usually simple squamous epithelium connected to a layer of loose connective (areolar) tissue
serous membrane
132
this type of membrane secretes thin, watery fluid which reduces friction between parietal and visceral surfaces
serous membrane
133
this type of membrane is named according to their location and organ
serous membrane
134
parietal pericardium and visceral pericardium, parietal pleura and visceral pleura are all examples of what type of membrane
serous membrane
135
integument or skin is what type of membrane
cutaneous membrane
136
this type of membrane consists of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium attached to a later of dense irregular connective tissue
cutaneous membrane
137
this type of membrane is exposed to external environment; provides durability; protection, and waterproofing
cutaneous membrane
138
toward the head; also in reference to the anterior aspect of the front and rear limbs proximal to the carpus or tarsus
cranial
139
toward the nose; used to describe structures on the head
rostral
140
toward the tail; also in reference to the posterior aspect of the front and rear limbs proximal to the carpus or tarsus
caudal
141
toward the backbone; also in reference to the front and rear limbs distal to and including the carpus or tarsus
dorsal
142
away from the backbone
ventral
143
closest to the median plane
medial
144
farthest from the medial plane
lateral
145
the point closest to the backbone; used especially in reference to limbs
distal
146
toward the head; used especially in reference to limbs
anterior
147
toward the tail; used especially in reference to limbs
posterior
148
bottom of the front foot
palmar
149
bottom of the rear foot
plantar
150
toward the outer surface of the animal
superficial
151
away from the outer surface of the animal
deep
152
the study of bone
osteology
153
what are the skeletal divisions
1. axial skeleton
| 2. appendicular skeleton
154
these bones are found on the midline or attached to it (includes ribs, skull, vertebral column, and sternum)
axial skeleton
155
all bones present in the limbs (femur, humerus, etc)
appendicular skeleton
156
what are the function of bones?
1. support soft tissues of the body
2. protect vital organs
3. act as levers for muscle attachment
4. store minerals
5. produce blood cells
157
what are the two types of bones?
1. compact (dense) bone
| 2. spongy (cancellous) bone
158
this type of bone has very few spaces, appears solid, and provides strength and support
compact bone
159
this type of bone is made haversian systems (osteons)
compact bone
160
______ systems or _____ are composed of the following:
1. central haversian canal: houses blood vessels and nerves
2. canaliculi: very small canals that radiate out, connecting all lacunae to each other and to the central haversian canal
3. lamellae: concentric rings of bone
4. lacunar: small spaces that house osteocytes (mature bone cells)
haversian systems or osteons
161
house blood vessels and nerves
central haversian canal
162
very small canals that radiate out, connecting all lacunae to each other and to the central haversian canal
canaliculi
163
concentric rings of bone
lamellae
164
small spaces that house osteocytes or mature bone cells
lacunae
165
These types of bone have no Haversian systems, have large spaces between lattice like pieces of bone (trabeculae), and have spaces that are filled with marrow
spongy (cancellous) bone
166
spongy bone of the skill is known as ______
diploe
167
what are the different types of bone cells?
1. osteoblast
2. osteocyte
3. osteoclast
168
immature bone cells that produce the bone matrix known as osteoid
osteoblast
169
mature bone cells; each cell occupies a lacuna in bone
osteocyte
170
very large multinucleated cells capable of dissolving bone matrix and releasing minerals
osteoclast
171
the process of dissolving bone matrix and releasing minerals is known as
osteolysis or resorption
172
it is important for the body to maintain a balance between ____ and ____ activity
osteoblast and osteoclast
173
what are the different classifications of bones?
1. long bones
2. short bones
3. flat bones
4. pneumatic bones
5. irregular bones
6. sesamoid bones
174
this type of bone consists of a long cylindrical shaft (diaphysis), two ends (epiphyses), and a marrow cavity. They are the main supporting bones of the body.
long bones
175
what are the different parts of a long bone
epiphysis
disphysis
epiphysis
176
what are the different parts of a long bone
```
epiphysis - articular cartilage
disphysis - spongy bone
epiphysis - epiphyseal plate
- red marrow cavities
- compact bone
- endosteum
- medullary cavity
- yellow marrow
- periosteum
- epiphyseal plate
```
177
part of the long bone known as the shaft
diaphysis
178
part of the long bone on the proximal or distal end of the bone
epiphysis
179
part of the long bone - hyaline cartilage that covers ends of the bones
articular cartilage
180
part of the long bone - fibrous membrane covering the outside of the bone; rich in blood, nerves, and lymphatic vessels
periosteum
181
part of the long bone that lines the marrow cavity
endosteum
182
part of the long bone - space within the bone center that contains marrow (red or yellow)
medullary (marrow) cavity
183
hematopoietic tissue that produces blood cells
red marrow
184
yellow marrow is primarily ____
fat
185
part of the long bone - region between diaphysis and epiphysis where bone grows in length; often referred to as the growth plate; becomes the ______ line in mature animals
epiphysial cartilage
186
these bones are small, cube shaped bones with two thin layers of compact bone with spongy bone between the layers and function as shock absorbers
short bones
187
these bones are thin, flat bones comprised of two layers of compact bone with spongy bone between the layers; resembling a sandwich, that have a protective function
flat bones
188
these bones contain sinuses and in avians, act as part of the respiratory system
pneumatic bones
189
these bones are unpaired bones with complicated shapes that do not fit any other category
irregular bones
190
these bones are found near freely moving joints. they are small short bones attached to tendons and reduce friction along a joint
sesamoid bones
191
formation of a bone is called
osteogenesis
192
these bones are formed from cartilage bars laid down in the embryo and the majority of bones in the body are formed by this method
endochondral
193
these bones are formed from fibrous membranes laid down in the embryo. most flat bones are formed by this method. This method is where osteoblasts product new bone and become mature osteocytes.
intramembranous
194
how many cervical vertebrae do dogs and cats have
7
195
how many cervical vertebrae do horse have
7
196
how many cervical vertebrae do cattle have
7
197
how many cervical vertebrae do pigs have
7
198
how many cervical vertebrae do sheep have
7
199
how many cervical vertebrae do humans have
7
200
how many thoracic vertebrae do dogs and cats have
13
201
how many thoracic vertebrae do horse have
18
202
how many thoracic vertebrae do cattle have
13
203
how many thoracic vertebrae do pigs have
14-15
204
how many thoracic vertebrae do sheep have
13
205
how many thoracic vertebrae do humans have
12
206
how many lumbar vertebrae do dogs and cats have
7
207
how many lumbar vertebrae do horses have
6
208
how many lumbar vertebrae do cattle have
6
209
how many lumbar vertebrae do pigs have
6-7
210
how many lumbar vertebrae do sheep have
6-7
211
how many lumbar vertebrae do humans have
5
212
how many sacral vertebrae do dogs and cats have
3
213
how many sacral vertebrae do horses have
5
214
how many sacral vertebrae do cattle have
5
215
how many sacral vertebrae do pigs have
4
216
how many sacral vertebrae do sheep have
4
217
how many sacral vertebrae do humans have
5
218
how many caudal or coccygeal vertebrae do cats and dogs have
6-23
219
how many caudal or coccygeal vertebrae do horses have
15-20
220
how many caudal or coccygeal vertebrae do cattle have
18-20
221
how many caudal or coccygeal vertebrae do pigs have
20-23
222
how many caudal or coccygeal vertebrae do sheep have
16-18
223
how many caudal or coccygeal vertebrae do humans have
4
224
in cats and dogs, which has a clavicle and which does not
cats have clavicles, dogs do not
225
male dogs and cats have a nonarticulating bone in the _____
penis
226
cattle have a nonarticulating bone in the ______
heart
227
pigs have a nonarticulating bone in the _______
snout
228
what are formed when two or more bones are united by fibrous, elastic, or cartilaginous tissue
articulations (joints)
229
what are the different classifications of joints
1. synarthrosis
2. amphiarthrosis
3. diarthrosis
230
an immovable joint is called _____. Give an example.
synarthrosis; skull sutures
231
a slightly moveable joint is called _____. Give an example.
amphiarthrosis; pubic symphysis
232
freely moveable joints are called ______. Give an example.
diarthrosis; stifle
233
what are the different classifications of joint by function?
1. synarthrotic
2. amphiarthrotic
3. diarthrotic
234
what are this different classifications of joints by structure?
1. fibrous
2. cartilaginous
3. synovial
235
joint structure united by fibrous tissue; no joint cavity; synarthroses
fibrous
236
joint structure united by cartilage; no joint cavity; amphiarthroses
cartilaginous
237
joint structure where joint cavity is filled with fluid; membrane and joint capsule; diarthroses
synovial
238
a majority of the joints in the body are ____-
synovial
239
synovial joints are classified into several types based on ____ and ____
structure and function
240
what are the main functions of the muscular system?
1. produces movement of entire body or parts
2. maintains posture
3. produces heat
241
what are the three types of muscle?
1. skeletal
2. smooth
3. cardiac
242
______ muscle cells are long, striated fibers that run parallel to each other
skeletal
243
______ muscle cells are multinucleated with the nuclei on the periphery
skeletal
244
each muscle fiber is a muscle cell consisting of many ______
myofibrils
245
myofibrils are composed of _______ (actin and myosin)
myofilaments
246
what is the functional unit of a muscle cell
sarcomere
247
in sarcomere, the connective tissue that lies between the sarcomeres
z line
248
in sarcomere, this line runs through the exact center
M line
249
in a sarcomere, these are the darker striations and are the total length of the thick filament - includes portions of the thin ligament (actin)
A band
250
This is the area within the A band with only thick filaments
H zone
251
area with lighter striations, area of the sarcomere with only thin filament
i band
252
what are the types of smooth muscle
visceral
nonstriated
involuntary
253
these cells are spindle shaped with one centrally located nucleus and no striations
smooth muscle cells
254
what muscles are responsible for involuntary movement. give an example of involuntary movement
smooth muscle. digestion.
255
what are the two types of smooth muscle
single unit/visceral smooth
| multiunit smooth
256
this type of smooth muscle is found in sheets and forms the walls of many hollow organs such as intestines and contractions occur in waves called peristalsis with the whole muscle acting as one unit
single unit smooth
257
this type of smooth muscle is found as individual fibers, and the fibers are activated individually by the autonomic nervous system such as the arrector of the hair, eye muscles
multiunit smooth
258
this muscle (myocardium) is involuntary, striated cells that branch to form a network. they are joined by intercalated discs, which aid in conduction of the nervous impulse to coordinate contraction
cardiac muscle
259
what does the all-or-none principle in regards to muscle fibers state?
all - or - none principle states that muscle fibers either contract to their fullest or not at all
260
contraction of skeletal muscle by mechanism is described in the sliding filament theory. what are those steps from beginning to end?
1. a nerve impulse travels down a motor nerve axon
2. Acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft, transmitting the impulse to the sarcolemma
3. Impulse is conducted into the T tubules and to the sarcoplasmic reticulum
4. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
5. Calcium binds to troponin, which causes a change in the conformation of tropomyosin
6. this change exposes the myosin binding sites on the actin
7. ATP is hydrolyzed, providing the energy required for contraction
8. Myosin binds to actin, forming cross-bridges
9. Myosin shortens, brings Z bands closer together
9a. cross-bridges detach, move, and reattach
9b. myosin continues to attach, pull and detach, which moves the actin toward the center of the sarcomere during this active phase of muscle contraction
10. when the nerve impulse stops, calcium is actively transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and muscle relaxes; energy is also required for relaxation
261
this muscle action usually decreases the angle of the joint
flexor
262
this muscle action usually increases the angle of a joint
extensor
263
muscle action that moves the bone away from the midline
abductor
264
muscle action that moves a bone toward the midline
adductor
265
muscle action that produces a dorsally directed movement
levator
266
muscle action that produces a ventrally directed movement
depressor
267
muscle action that decreases the size of an opening
sphincter
268
this joint structure has a ball shaped head that articulates with a cup shaped depression
ball and socket (spheroid)
269
give an example of a ball and socket joint
shoulder, hip
270
what muscle movements are ball and socket joints capable of
```
flexion
extension
abduction
adduction
rotation
circumduction
```
271
this joint structure has oval articulating surfaces
arthrodial (condyloid)
272
give an example of arthodial (condyloid) joints
radiocarpal joints
273
what muscle movements are arthrodial (condyloid) joints capable of
flexion
| extension
274
this joint structure has a cylindrical bone that fits into a depression
hinge (ginglymus)
275
what are some examples of a hinge (ginglymus) joint
stifle, elbow
276
what muscle movements are trochoid (pivot) joints capable of
rotation
277
this joint structure has a rounded end of one bone that articulates with a ring of bone
trochoid (pivot)
278
what are some examples of trochoid (pivot) joints
atlantoaxial
279
what muscle movements are hinge (ginglymus) joints capable of
flexion
| extension
280
this joint structure has flat, articulating surfaces
gliding
281
what are some examples of gliding joints
radioulnar, intervertebral
282
what muscle movements are gliding joints capable of
flexion
| extension
283
this joint structure has a concave surface that articulates with a convex bone
saddle
284
what are some examples of saddle joints
carpometacarpal, in primates only
285
what muscle movements are saddle joints capable of
```
flexion
extension
abduction
adduction
rotation
circumduction
```
286
the brain and spinal cord compose what system?
central nervous system (CNS)
287
this system consists of all the nerves connecting to the CNS
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
288
This part of the brain is the site of motor control, interpretation of sensory impulses, and areas of association
cerebrum
289
what is the basic arrangement of the cerebrum
outer gray matter that contains neuron cell bodies, and inner white matter that consists mainly of axons
290
the surface area of the cerebrum is increased by ______ (elevations) and ______ (fissures)
gyri (elevations) and sulci (fissures)
291
this is the prominent groove that divides the cerebrum into right and left hemispheres
longitudinal fissure
292
name the four lobes that the brain is divided into
frontal
parietal
occipital
temporal
293
This is the region of thalamus and hypothalamus
diencephalon
294
the ______ acts as the relay station for sensory impulses and interprets some sensations, such as temperature and pain
thalamus
295
the _____ regulates many homeostatic functions such as body temperature, fluid balance, thirst, urine output, food intake, emotion, and behavioral patterns. It also has an important connection with the endocrine system
hypothalamus
296
the brainstem consists of what three parts?
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
297
The midbrain serves as a connecting link between _____ and _____
between the forebrain (cerebrum) and hindbrain
