Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
Fix italics before card number 125. (161 cards)
1
Q
What is the study of the body’s structure?
A
Anatomy
2
Q
What is the study of the body’s function?
A
Physiology
3
Q
What is the study of disease?
A
Pathophysiology
4
Q
What is the role of homeostasis in the human body?
A
Homeostasis is a state of balance or equilibrium within the body. Every cell, tissue, organ, and system in the human body functions to maintain homeostasis. The human body’s homeostatic range is quite narrow.
5
Q
Describe the anatomical position.
A
The body is in the standing position, arms at the sides, with palms forward (thumbs on the outside).
6
Q
Describe the midline plane.
A
The midline divides the body into left and right.
7
Q
Describe the transverse plane.
A
The transverse plane divides the body into top and bottom at the level of the umbilicus.
8
Q
Describe the frontal plane.
A
The frontal plane (imaginary line) divides the body into anterior and posterior.
9
Q
Describe the difference between abduction and adduction.
A
Abduction refers to movement away from the midline and adduction refers to movement towards the midline.
10
Q
Describe extension and flexion.
A
Extension refers to straightening the joint (increasing the angle of the joint) and flexion refers to bending the joint (decreasing the angle of the joint).
11
Q
Describe the supine position.
A
Lying on your back, face up.
12
Q
Describe the prone position.
A
Lying on your stomach, face down.
13
Q
Describe the fowler position.
A
Seated with head elevated.
14
Q
Describe the recovery position.
A
Lying on the left or right side.
15
Q
The abdomen can be divided into four quadrants:
A
The right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
16
Q
What organs are contained in the right upper quadrant (RUQ)?
A
The right upper quadrant contains the gallbladder, the duodenum of the intestines, the majority of the liver, and a small portion of the pancreas.
17
Q
What organs are contained in the left upper quadrant (LUQ)?
A
The left upper quadrant contains the spleen, most of the stomach, and the larger portion of the pancreas.
18
Q
What organs are contained in the right lower quadrant (RLQ)?
A
The right lower quadrant contains large portions of the large and small intestines (including the ascending colon and the right half of the transverse colon), as well as the appendix, which is situated at the proximal end of the ascending colon.
19
Q
What organs are contained in the left lower quadrant (LLQ)?
A
The left lower quadrant contains portions of the large and small intestines (most notably the descending colon and the left half of the transverse colon).
20
Q
What is the function of the skeletal system?
A
The skeletal system provides shape, allows movement, and protects internal organs.
21
Q
How many bones are there in the human body?
A
There are 206 bones in the human body.
22
Q
How are bones connected to other bones?
A
The fibrous tissues that connect bone to bone are called ligaments.
23
Q
What tissue protects bones from rubbing against each other?
A
The semirigid although flexible tissue that covers and cushions the ends of articulating bones is called cartilage.
24
Q
What connective tissue in the human body attaches bone to muscle?
A
The connective tissue that attaches bone to muscle is called tendon.
25
What does the axial skeleton consists of?
The axial skeleton consists primarily of the skull, spinal column, and rib cage (thoracic cavity).
26
Describe what kind of bones are found in the spinal column. How many sections does the spinal column have?
The vertebral column (or spinal column) is composed of 33 bones, called *vertebrae,* divided into five sections.
27
Name each section of the spinal column along with the corresponding vertebrae for each section.
The cervical spine (7 vertebrae, C1 TO C7), the thoracic spine (12 vertebrae, T1 to T12), the lumbar spine (5 vertebrae, L1 to L5), the sacrum (5 fused vertebrae), and the coccyx (4 fused vertebrae).
28
What does the appendicular skeleton consists of?
The *appendicular skeleton* includes the bones of the arms, legs, and pelvis.
29
Describe smooth muscle.
*Smooth muscle* is involuntary, located within the blood vessels and the digestive tract.
30
Describe skeletal muscle.
*Skeletal muscle* is voluntary muscle that attaches to the skeleton.
31
Explain the role of the respiratory system in the human body.
The *respiratory system* provides the body with adequate oxygen and eliminates waste products such as carbon dioxide (CO2). The respiratory system helps regulate pH levels to assist in maintaining homeostasis.
32
What components are found in the upper airway?
Components of the *upper airway* include nose and mouth, nasopharynx (upper part of the throat behind the nose), oropharynx (area of the throat behind the mouth), larynx (voice box), and epiglottis (valve that protects the opening of the trachea).
33
What components are found in the lower airway?
Trachea, carina (where the trachea branches into left and right mainstem bronchi), left and right mainstem bronchi (primary branches of the trachea leading to left and right lungs), bronchioles (smaller branches of the bronchi), and alveoli.
34
What is the common cause of upper airway obstruction?
The *tongue* is by far the most common cause of upper-airway obstruction.
35
What is the function of the alveoli?
Pulmonary alveolus (pl. alveoli) are tiny air sacs that function as basic respiratory units. Alveoli diffuse oxygen from the respiratory system to the rest of the body.
36
Where are alveoli found?
The alveoli are located sparsely in the respiratory bronchioles, lining the walls of the alveolar ducts. They are located in the alveolar sacs of the lungs in the pulmonary lobules of the respiratory zone.
37
What keeps alveoli from collapsing?
Surfactant is a substance that helps keep the alveoli from collapsing.
38
Define pleura.
Each of a pair of serous membranes lining the thorax and enveloping the lungs. The visceral pleura lines the outer surface of the lungs and the parietal pleura lines the inside surface of the chest cavity.
39
Explain the function of the diaphragm in the human body.
The diaphragm is the primary muscle of respiration. It separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. It is usually under involuntary control but can be controlled voluntarily. The diaphragm is dome shaped until it contracts during inhalation. During inhalation, it moves down and expands the size of the thoracic cavity.
40
What is the role of the intercostal muscles?
Located between the ribs, the intercostal muscles contract during inhalation and expand the thoracic cage.
41
Describe what occurs during inhalation.
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the thoracic cage expands, pressure in the chest cavity decreases, and air rushes in. Inhalation is an active process and requires energy.
42
How much oxygen does atmospheric air contain?
Atmospheric air contains 21% oxygen.
43
Describe what occurs during exhalation.
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, the thoracic cage contracts, pressure in the chest cavity rises, and air is expelled. Exhalation is normally passive and does not require energy.
44
How much oxygen does exhaled air contain?
Exhaled air contains 16% oxygen.
45
What is external respiration?
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries.
46
What is internal respiration?
The exchange of gas between the body's cells and the systemic capillaries.
47
How does cellular respiration occur?
(Better known as aerobic metabolism), uses oxygen to break down glucose to create energy.
48
How is carbon dioxide levels monitored in the human body?
The brain stem monitors carbon dioxide levels in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid.
49
What happens to the human body when there is high carbon dioxide levels?
High carbon dioxide levels will stimulate an increase in respiratory rate and tidal volume.
50
Describe the hypoxic drive and how it differs from the carbon dioxide drive.
The hypoxic drive is a backup system to the carbon dioxide drive. Specialized sensors in the brain, aorta, and carotid arteries monitor oxygen levels. Low oxygen levels will stimulate breathing. The hypoxic drive is less effective than the carbon dioxide drive.
51
Define tidal volume.
Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled in one breath.
52
Define residual volume.
Residual volume is the amount of air in the lungs after completely exhaling. The residual volume keeps the lungs open.
53
What is the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume?
The inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can still be inhaled or exhaled after a normal breath.
54
What is dead space?
Dead space is the amount of air in the respiratory system not including the alveoli.
55
Define minute volume.
Minute volume is the respiratory rate multiplied by the tidal volume.
56
What is the normal rate and tidal volume for an adult patient?
12 to 20 breaths per minute (bpm).
57
What is the normal rate and tidal volume for a pediatric patient?
15 to 30 breaths per minute (bpm).
58
What is the normal rate and tidal volume for an infant patient?
25 to 50 breaths per minute (bpm).
59
Describe normal breathing.
Normal rate and tidal volume, non-labored, regular rhythm, clear and equal breath sounds bilaterally.
60
Describe abnormal breathing.
Abnormal rate and tidal volume, labored breathing, muscle retractions, abnormal skin color (gray, pallor, or cyanosis), tripod position, and agonal breaths.
61
What is the tripod position?
The tripod position is when a person sits or stands leaning forward and supports their upper body with their hands on their knees or other surface.
62
What are agonal breaths?
Agonal breaths are dying gasps. They are slow and shallow breaths that do not move air into the alveoli.
63
What does the circulatory system consist of?
The circulatory system includes all blood vessels, capillaries, and the heart. It is also referred to as the cardiovascular system.
64
What is the function of the heart?
The heart is a muscular organ with two pumps, usually beating about 60 to 100 times per minute. It is divided into two separate pumping systems, the right side and the left side. It continuously pumps oxygen and nutrient-rich blood throughout the body to sustain life.
65
What is the role of the left side of the heart?
The left pump receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it through the arteries to the rest of the body. It is the stronger of the two pumps, with a greater workload than the right pump.
66
What is the role of the right side of the heart?
The right pump receives deoxygenated blood from the veins and sends it to the lungs to drop off carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen.
67
How is the heart divided into left and right sides?
A septal wall divides the heart into left and right sides.
68
Describe the endocardium layer.
The endocardium layer is the smooth, thin layer of heart muscle lining the inside of the heart.
69
Describe the myocardium layer.
The myocardium layer is the thick muscular wall of the heart.
70
Describe the epicardium layer.
The epicardium layer is the outermost layer of the heart and innermost layer of the pericardium.
71
What is the pericardium?
The pericardium is the fibrous sac made of dense connective tissue surrounding the heart.
72
How many layers of heart muscle does the heart have?
The heart has three layers of heart muscle and pericardium.
73
What is the atria of the heart?
The atrium (pl. atria) is one of the two upper chambers in the heart that receives blood from the circulatory system. Blood returning to the heart on both sides enters the atria.
74
What occurs after blood returns to the heart on both sides via the atria?
After blood returns to the heart on both sides via the atria, the atria then pumps the blood into the ventricles just before the ventricles contract. This is referred to as "atrial kick" and helps increase cardiac output.
75
Where is the blood in the atria pumped into?
The blood in the atria is pumped into the heart ventricles through the atrioventricular mitral and tricuspid heart valves.
76
What are the ventricles of the heart?
The ventricles are the two lower and larger chambers of the heart. They receive blood from the atria and send it out of the heart during ventricular contraction. Under normal circumstances, this generates a palpable pulse.
77
Describe the function of the left ventricle.
The left ventricle sends oxygen-rich blood throughout the body under high pressure.
78
Describe the function of the right ventricle.
The right ventricle sends oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs under low pressure.
79
What are heart valves?
Heart valves are one-way valves between the atria and ventricles that allow blood to move in a downward direction into the ventricles during atrial contraction. The valves then close during ventricular contraction to prevent regurgitation of blood back into the atria.
80
How many heart valves are there in a human heart?
There are four heart valves in a human heart. Two of the valves, the mitral and the tricuspid valves, move blood from the upper chambers of the heart (the atria) to the lower chambers of the heart (the ventricles). The other two valves, the aortic and pulmonary valves, move blood to the lungs and the rest of the body through the ventricles.
81
Where is the tricuspid valve located?
The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle.
82
What is the function of the tricuspid valve?
The tricuspid valve controls the flow of blood from the heart's right atrium (top chamber) to the right ventricle (bottom chamber).
83
Where is the pulmonary valve located?
The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
84
What is the function of the pulmonary valve?
The pulmonary valve opens to allow blood to be pumped from the right ventricle to the lungs (through the pulmonary artery) where it will receive oxygen. In normal conditions, the pulmonic valve prevents regurgitation of deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery back to the right ventricle.
85
Where is the mitral valve located?
The mitral valve is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
86
What is the function of the mitral valve?
The mitral valve regulates blood flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle. A normal mitral valve has two flaps, or leaflets.
87
Where is the aortic valve located?
The aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta.
88
What is the function of the aortic valve?
The aortic valve is the last valve encountered by oxygenated blood as it leaves the heart. It opens to let blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta.
89
Explain how the cardiac conduction system works.
The heart has its own electrical system. It generates electrical impulses, which stimulate contraction of the heart muscle. The heart can generate electrical impulses from three different locations. The primary power plant, the sinoatrial (SA) node, normally generates impulses between 60 to 100 times per minute in the adult (producing a normal heart rate). The atrioventricular (AV) junction is the backup pacemaker and generates electrical impulses at about 40 to 60 per minute. The bundle of His is the final pacemaker for the heart. It generates impulses only at about 20 to 40 per minute.
90
What is the function of the coronary arteries?
The heart receives its blood flow from the coronary arteries, which branch off of the aorta.
91
What conditions cease cardiac output?
Cardiac output (circulation) will cease if the heart is unable to generate electrical impulses or if the heart muscle is too damaged to respond to the impulses.
92
Explain myocardial contractility.
Contractility refers to the heart's ability to contract. Adequate contractility requires adequate blood volume and muscle strength.
93
What is cardiac preload?
Preload is the pre-contraction pressure based on the amount of blood coming back to the heart.
94
How does increased preload affect myocardial contractility?
Increased preload leads to increased stretching of the ventricles and increased myocardial contractility.
95
What is cardiac afterload?
Afterload is the resistance the heart must overcome during ventricular contraction.
96
How does increased afterload affect cardiac output?
Increased afterload leads to decreased cardiac output.
97
What occurs after oxygenated blood exits the heart through the aorta?
Oxygen-rich blood exits the left heart through the aorta. The aorta branches off into arteries, then arterioles, and finally capillaries. On the venous side, capillaries feed into venules, then veins, and finally the superior or inferior vena cava.
98
Describe blood flow through the cardiovascular system.
The vena cava (1) returns blood to the right side of the heart into the right atrium (2). The right atrium pumps blood into the right ventricle (3), which pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary arteries (4 and 5) into the lungs. The carbon dioxide and oxygen exchange takes place between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs returns to the left heart through the pulmonary veins (6) into the left atrium (7). The left atrium pumps blood into the left ventricle (8), which then pumps it to the aorta (9 and 10) for circulation throughout the body.
99
What direction do arteries flow?
Arteries always carry blood away from the heart. It is important to distinct that the pulmonary artery is the one artery in the body that carries deoxygenated blood.
100
What direction do veins flow?
Veins always carry blood toward the heart. Note that the pulmonary vein is the only vein in the body that carries oxygen-rich blood.
101
What is systemic vascular resistance (SVR)?
Systemic vascular resistance is the resistance to blood flow throughout the body (excluding the pulmonary system). It is determined by the size of blood vessels.
102
What increases systemic vascular resistance? What occurs during this process?
Constriction (reduced size) of blood vessels increases systemic vascular resistance and can cause an increase in blood pressure.
103
What decrease systemic vascular resistance? What occurs during this process?
Dilation (increased size) of blood vessels decreases systemic vascular resistance and can lower blood pressure.
104
Where is the carotid pulse located?
The carotid pulse can be felt by palpating the carotid artery in the neck during contraction of the left ventricle.
105
Where is the femoral artery located?
The femoral artery can be felt by palpating the femoral artery in the groin area during contraction of the left ventricle.
106
Where is the radial pulse located?
The radial pulse can be felt by palpating the wrist on the radial (thumb) side.
107
Where is the brachial pulse located?
The brachial pulse can be felt by palpating the medial portion of the upper arm beneath the biceps muscle. It can also be felt on the anterior medial area of the arm where the humerus meets the forearm (elbow area).
108
Where is the dorsalis pulse located?
The dorsalis pulse can be palpated on top of the foot.
109
Define plasma.
Plasma is the liquid component of blood; made mostly of water.
110
What are red blood cells (erythrocytes)?
Red blood cells are the oxygen-carrying component of blood.
111
What is the role of white blood cells (leukocytes)?
White blood cells fight infection by defending against invading organisms.
112
Why are platelets important?
Platelets are essential for clot formation to stop bleeding.
113
Define blood pressure.
Blood pressure is a measurement of the pressure exerted against the walls of the arteries.
114
What is systolic pressure?
Systolic pressure is the blood pressure exerted during contraction of the left ventricle.
115
What is diastolic pressure?
Diastolic pressure is the blood pressure in between contractions.
116
What is perfusion? Why is perfusion important?
Perfusion is the flow of blood throughout the body. It is the means by which blood provides nutrients and removes cellular wastes.
117
What is adequate perfusion?
Adequate perfusion means blood flow is adequate to all the tissues and organs in the body.
118
What is inadequate perfusion (hypoperfusion or shock)?
Inadequate perfusion means blood flow has been compromised to the point the entire body is at risk.
119
What is the central nervous system (CNS)?
The central nervous system is the command and control portion of the nervous system.
120
What does the central nervous system (CNS) consists of?
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
121
How does the brain receive information?
The brain receives information from the peripheral nervous system (PNS), makes decisions, and sends orders to the PNS.
122
Define cerebrum.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It controls thought, memory, and the senses.
123
Define cerebellum.
The *cerebellum* coordinates voluntary movement, fine motor function, and balance.
124
What is the role of the brain stem?
The *brain stem* includes midbrain, pons, and medulla. It controls essential body functions, such as breathing and consciousness.
125
Define spinal cord.
The *spinal cord* is the communication bridge between the brain and the PNS.
126
What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
*Cerebrospinal fluid* is a clear fluid in and around the brain and spinal cord. It cushions the central nervous system and filters contaminants.
127
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
The *peripheral nervous system* send information to the central nervous system and carries out orders from the central nervous system.
128
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of?
The *peripheral nervous system* consists of all other nervous system structures outside of the central nervous system, including cranial and peripheral nerves.
129
What is the difference between the two division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
The *sensory division* sends sensory information to the central nervous system and the *motor division* receives motor commands from the central nervous system.
130
What is the difference between the two divisions of the motor portion of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
The *somatic nervous system* is the voluntary portion of the peripheral nervous system and the *autonomic nervous system* is the involuntary portion of the peripheral nervous system.
131
Define sympathetic.
*Sympathetic* refers to the "fight or flight" portion of the autonomic nervous system. It exerts greater control in times of stress or danger.
132
Define parasympathetic.
*Parasympathetic* refers to the "feed and breed" portion of the autonomic nervous system. It exerts greater control in times of rest, digestion, or reproduction.
133
What is the outermost layer of the skin?
The outermost layer of the skin is the *epidermis.*
134
Describe the two epidermal layers.
The *germinal layer* produces new cells and pushes them to the surface. The cells die en route to the surface. The *stratum corneal layer* is the top epidermal layer and consists of dead skin cells.
135
What is the layer below the epidermis?
The *dermis* is the layer below the epidermis. It contains blood vessels, nerve endings, sweat glands, and hair follicles.
136
What is the deepest layer of the skin, below the dermis?
The *subcutaneous tissue* is the deepest layer of the integumentary system, below the dermis, above the muscle layer. It is also known as the fatty tissue.
137
Describe the abdominal cavity.
The *abdominal cavity* contains numerous organs of digestion and excretion. It is separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm. It continues inferiorly into the pelvic cavity. The two continuous cavities are sometimes referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominal cavity is divided into four quadrants by the transverse line and the midline.
138
Describe the esophagus and its function in the human body.
The *esophagus* is a collapsible digestive structure running from the mouth to the stomach. The esophagus is found posterior to the trachea.
139
Describe the stomach and its function in the human body.
The *stomach* is a hollow digestive organ in the left upper quadrant. The stomach receives food, begins breaking it down, and sends it to the small intestine.
140
Describe the pancreas and its function in the human body.
The *pancreas* is a solid organ that aids in digestion, produces insulin, and helps regulate blood glucose levels.
141
Describe the liver and its function in the human body.
The *liver* is a solid organ that occupies most of the right upper quadrant. The liver helps break down fats, filters toxins, and produces cholesterol.
142
Describe the gallbladder and its function in the human body.
The *gallbladder* is a hollow organ positioned beneath the liver. It collects and stores bile from the liver. The gallbladder also releases bile into the intestine to aid in digestion.
143
Describe the small intestine and its function in the human body.
The *small intestine* is a hollow organ that occupies both lower abdominal quadrants. Food from the stomach is mixed with digestive enzymes to digest fat. Most of the contents are absorbed out of the small intestine and used or stored by the body.
144
Describe the large intestine and its function in the human body.
The *large intestine* is a hollow organ which includes the colon and rectum. It occupies the outer border of the abdomen. The large intestine pulls most of the remaining liquid to form solid stool.
145
Describe the appendix and its function in the human body.
The *appendix* is a hollow organ in the right lower quadrant. It can become easily obstructed, causing inflammation, rupture, and life-threatening infection.
146
Describe the spleen and its function in the human body.
The *spleen* is a solid organ with little protection in the left upper quadrant. The spleen filters the blood. It has a rich blood supply and can be a source of severe internal bleeding.
147
Describe the kidneys and its function in the human body.
The *kidneys* are solid organs that are part of the urinary system. The kidneys control fluid balance, filter waste, and control pH balance.
148
What is the endocrine system?
The *endocrine system* is a system of glands that secrete hormones into the blood to help regulate body functions.
149
What is the endocrine system responsible for?
The *endocrine system* is responsible for insulin production and regulation of blood glucose levels.
150
What is the role of the urinary system?
The *urinary system* filters waste from the blood through the kidneys. It controls fluid balance in the body. It also controls pH (acid-base balance) to maintain homeostasis.
151
What are ureters?
*Ureters* are tubes connecting each kidney to the bladder. Urine moves from the kidneys through the ureters into the bladder and then through the urethra and out of the body.
152
Describe the male reproductive system.
The *male reproductive system* contains the external genitals (the penis, testes, and the scrotum) and internal parts, including the prostate gland, vas deferens, and urethra.
153
Where is the esophagus located?
The esophagus is a collapsible digestive structure running from the mouth to the stomach. The esophagus is found posterior to the trachea.
153
Describe the female reproductive system.
The *female reproductive system* includes the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, accessory glands, and external genital organs.
154
What is the purpose of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?
The body uses oxygen to convert nutrients into cellular energy called *adenosine triphosphate.* Cells receive exponentially more adenosine triphosphate if there is an adequate oxygen supply.
155
Explain aerobic metabolism in the human body.
*Aerobic metabolism* is the creation of cellular energy with the use of oxygen. It is by far the most efficient means of energy production.
156
What are the waste products of aerobic metabolism?
The waste products of aerobic metabolism are water and carbon dioxide.
157
How does the body eliminate the waste products of aerobic metabolism?
The human body is well equipped to handle these by-products through the respiratory and urinary systems.
158
Explain anaerobic metabolism in the human body.
*Anaerobic metabolism* is the creation of energy without an adequate oxygen supply. Much of the body (excluding the heart and brain) can switch over to an anaerobic metabolism when necessary. The body will triage the oxygen supply when necessary, sending it to the most critical areas and forcing other areas into an anaerobic state.
159
What are the waste products of anaerobic metabolism?
The by-products of anaerobic metabolism include lactic acid. The body needs much longer to deal with by-products of anaerobic metabolism and cannot complete the process until adequate oxygen supply is restored.
160
List the anatomical differences of infants and children in comparison to adults.
The pediatric tongue is larger in proportion to the airway, the airway is more easily obstructed, and the head is larger in proportion to the body.
