anatomy and physiology Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
Define Health
A
A state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity
2
Q
Formula for Max HR
A
220-Age
3
Q
Define fitness
A
The ability to meet the demands of the environment
4
Q
Define stroke volume
A
The volume of blood pumped out by the heart ventricles per beat
5
Q
Define Cardiac output
A
The volume of blood pumped out by the ventricles per minute
HR x SV
6
Q
What happens to venous return during exercise
A
It increases
7
Q
Define Venous return
A
The flow of the blood back to the heart, via the veins and specifically the vena cava
8
Q
Label the heart
A
Vena cava
Right atrium
tricuspid valve
pulmonary artery
pulmonary vein
right ventricle
aorta
left atrium
bicuspid valve
left ventricle
chordae tendineae
aortic semilunar valve
septum
9
Q
Define A-Vo2 diff
A
The difference in the volume of oxygen between the arteries and the veins
10
Q
What is the order of the cardiac conduction system
A
- sinoatrial node (SA node)
- Atrial contraction
- atrioventricular node (AV node)
- Bundle of his
- Purkinje fibres
- Ventricular contraction
11
Q
What are the cardiovascular benefits of exercise
A
Decrease blood pressure
Decrease cholesterol levels
Decrease chance of stroke
Decrease chance of heart disease
12
Q
What are additional benefits of exercise
A
Decreased weight
Improve mental, social and physical well-being
strengthens heart muscle
13
Q
What occurs due to a result of long term training to the cardiovascular system
A
Increase in cardiac hypertrophy
Increased strength contraction
Lower resting heart rate
Higher possible cardiac output than untrained
14
Q
What are the benefits of the long term effects of continuous training
A
Increased oxygen available to muscles for respiration
Reduced amount of fatigue
15
Q
Dissociation curve/ bohr shift:
Define- Affinity, association and dissociation
A
Affinity- Attraction to
Association- Attaching to
Dissociation- Detaching from
16
Q
What are the 3 causes of the Bohr shift
A
Increase in Co2
Increase in temperature
Increase in acidity levels
17
Q
Explain how the causes of the bohr shift increases oxygen to the working muscles
A
Haemoglobin loses its affinity for oxygen at lower partial pressure of oxygen
More oxygen is dissociated from haemoglobin
More oxygen can be associated with myoglobin
More oxygen can be used for increased respiration
18
Q
What is the cardiac conduction system
A
A group of specialised cells that sends an electrical impulse to the cardiac muscle causing it to contract
19
Q
What can the heart be described as ( beat starts in the muscle itself)
A
Myogenic
20
Q
How does the heart beat? (cardiac conduction system)
A
The SAN causes the atria to contract
forces blood into the ventricle
Electrical impulse is then passed to AVN
AVN delays the transmission to allow for the atria to fully contract before the ventricular systole starts
Impulse then moves to the bundle of his
This transfers to the Purkinje fibres that causes the ventricles to contract and pump the blood around the body
21
Q
What is starlings law
A
Increased venous return -> Greater filling of the heart -> Cardiac muscle stretched -> More force of contraction -> Increased ejection fraction
22
Q
Why does starlings law increase stroke volume
A
As more blood is pumped out per beat due to an increased ejection fraction
23
Q
What is sympathetic system
A
Stimulates the heart to beat faster
24
Q
What is the parasympathetic system
A
Returns the heart to its resting level
25
Where is the sympathetic snd parasympathetic system located
Medulla oblongata
26
What does the sympathetic system cause
flight or fight reaction which releases adrenaline and vasoconstriction occurs
27
What happens when anticipatory rise occurs
Adrenaline is released and sends an impulse to the sympathetic nervous system
In anticipation to an event, the release of adrenaline causes a slight rise in heart rate
28
Define chemoreceptors
Detect an increase in carbon dioxide , a detection of this will stimulate the sympathetic system causing the heart to beat faster
29
Define baroreceptors
Detect a change in blood pressure
30
Define proprioceptors
Detect movement
At the start of exercise they detect movement which sends an impulse to the sympathetic nervous system to increase heart rate
31
How does physical activity affect Coronary heart disease, what causes this and what can this lead to
Due to blockages to the arteries called atherosclerosis by fatty deposits called atheroma
When this breaks off it can cause a heart attack
32
How does physical activity affect blood pressure
Not exercising can cause high blood pressure, this is the force of the blood pushing against the blood vessel wall
Regular exercise can reduce this up to 20%
33
How does physical exercise exercise impact on cholesterol levels
Increases HDL (high density lipoproteins) which transports excess cholesterol to the liver
Not exercising can mean LDL increases (low density lipoproteins) which transports cholesterol in the blood to tissues
34
How does physical exercise affect chances of a stroke
What is a stroke
Can decrease chances by 27%
A stroke occurs when the blood is cut off to the brain which causes cells to die
35
Define ischaemic stroke
When a blood vessel bursts leading to the brain
36
Define Haemorrhagic (apart of strokes)
When a blood vessel bursts leading to the brain which causes
37
What are the 2 types of circulation in the vascular system
1. Pulmonary
2. Systemic
38
Define a steady state exercise and provide an example
This is when an athlete is able to meet the oxygen demand with the oxygen supply
E.g jogging
39
Explain how cardiovascular drift occurs
This occurs 10-20 mins into a steady state exercise usually in warm conditions
There is a small increase in heart rate due to:
- Sweat causes a decrease in plasma making the blood more viscous
- Results in reducing venous return and stroke volume
- HR increases to compensate and maintain a higher cardiac output to cool the body
40
Define the pulmonary circulation
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and oxygenated blood back to the heart
41
Define systemic circulation
Oxygenated blood to the body from the heart and then the return of deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart
42
In what order is blood distributed around the body
Heart -> Arteries -> Arterioles -> Capillaries -> Venules -> Veins -> Heart
43
Define blood pressure and calculation
The force exerted by the blood against the blood vessel wall
Blood flow x resistance
44
Define systolic pressure
When the heart forces blood out under high pressure
45
Diastolic pressure
The lower pressure as the ventricles relax
46
What does the term venous return refer to
The mechanisms which are involved in assisting the blood’s return to the heart
47
What are the 3 mechanisms on venous return
The skeletal muscle Pump
The respiratory pump
Pocket valves
48
What does the skeletal muscle pump do
When the muscles contract they change shape, pressing on nearby veins and squeeze the blood towards the heart
49
What does the respiratory pump do
When muscles contract during breathing in and out, pressure changes occur meaning nearby veins are compressed which assists the blood return to the heart
50
What do the pocket valves do
Valves prevent the back-flow of blood
51
What is the redistribution of blood known as
The vascular shunt
52
Define vasodilation
The widening of the blood vessels to increase blood flow
53
Define vasoconstriction
The narrowing of the blood vessels to reduce the blood flow to the capillaries
54
Why is the redistribution of blood important
- Increase O2 supply to muscles
- Remove waste products
- Regulate body temp
- Redirect blood to the heart
55
How does exercise A-Vo2 diff
the oxygen difference increases during exercise as 4-5ml is the difference per 100ml but during exercise it is 16ml per 100ml
Therefore more oxygen is extracted from the blood by the muscles
56
How is A-Vo2 diff at rest
At rest muscles do not need oxygen so it is low
57
How does long term exercise impact on A-Vo2 diff
- Aerobic exercise leads to hypertrophy of type 1 fibres
- Can lead to increase in capillaries around the muscle
- Can lead to an increase in A-Vo2 diff due to better diffusion as a result of more capillaries
- Increase in muscle myoglobin
58
Define Tidal volume
The amount of air breathed in or out per breath
59
Define inspiratory reserve volume
The amount of air that can be forcibly inspired after a normal breath
60
Define expiratory reserve volume
The amount of air that can be forcibly expelled after a normal breath
61
Define residual volume
The amount is of air left in the lungs after maximal expiration has occurred
62
What will change to:
- inspiratory reserve volume
- expiratory reserve volume
- tidal volume
- residual volume
During exercise?
IRV- Decreases
ERV- Decreases
TV- Increases
RV- stays the same
63
Define minute ventilation and provide the calculation
The amount of air breathed in and out of the lungs in one minute
breathing rate x tidal volume
64
Define diffusion
The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
65
Gasesous exchange: what path will oxygen take and why
Oxygen moves from the alveoli to the capillaries, down the concentration gradient
Then moves from blood capillaries and into the muscle
66
Gasesous exchange: What pathway will carbon dioxide take
Move from muscles to the capillaries, down the concentration gradient
Move from capillaries to the alveoli, down the concentration gradient
67
Gaseous exchange: What is oxygen carried by
haemoglobin carried as oxyhemoglobin and can be dissolved in blood plasma
68
Gaseous exchange: What is carbon dioxide carried by
haemoglobin, can be dissolved into blood plasma
69
What are the characteristics of capillaries to aid diffusion
One cell thick walls- shorter diffusion pathway
Large surface area- increase area for diffusion
Very small- slower movement of blood through for maximum diffusion
70
How does increases in levels of acidity in the blood and carbon dioxide cause breathing rate to rise
The increase in acidity or carbon dioxide is detected by the chemoreceptors
An impulse is sent to the respiratory control centre in the medulla oblongata
This message is sent to the respiratory muscles causing an increase in frequency of contractions and increase strength of contraction causing breathing rate to increase
71
What are two poor lifestyle choices that can impact the respiratory system
Smoking
Lack of exercise
72
What damage can smoking cause and the effect of this
damage to alveoli- reduced ability for diffusion, so less oxygen can get into the body
Carbon monoxide attaching to red blood cells- Can’t associate with oxygen so less oxygen is able to get into the body
Excess mucus- increased diffusion pathway, therefore less oxygen into the body
73
What damage can a lack of exercise have and how might this impact them
Reduced strength and efficiency of respiratory muscles- less able to bring air into the lungs for effective diffusion
74
How might lifestyle choices impact performance e.g smoking and lack of exercise
Reduced oxygen intake reduces ability to create energy through respiration
Increases chances of fatigue and reduces stamina
75
What are the 3 stages of the aerobic system
1. glycolysis
2. The krebs cycle
3. Electron transport chain
76
What examples are associated with the aerobic system
Marathon running
77
Ads and dis of aerobic system
Ads:
- no fatiguing products
- High energy yield
Dis:
- Slow to produce ATP
- Not good for high intensity exercises
78
Explain the process of the aerobic system
Stage 1: Glycolysis
Glycogen is broken down by glycogen phosphorylase in to glucose
Glucose is broken down by PFK to release 2 ATP and pryuvic acid
Oxygen is used to resynthesise the ATP
Pryuvic acid is broken further into acetyl co-enzyme
Stage 2: Krebs cycle
Acetyl co-enzyme A is oxidised in mitochondria to form citric acid
citric acid is oxidised and broken down into 2 ATP and carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions are released
Stage 3: Electron transport
Hydrogen ions are picked up by the carriers NADH and FADH and transported to the mitochondria
They are oxidised to water and resynthesise 34 ATP
79
Explain the process of the anaerobic system
After phosphocreatine stores are exhausted, glycogen becomes the main fuel source
Glycogen is broken down by glycogen phosphorylase in to glucose
Glucose is then broken down by PFK to release 2 ATP and pryuvic acid
pryuvic acid is broken down by lactate dehydrogenase which forms lactic acid
80
Explain the process of the ATP-PC system
After 2 seconds of high intensity exercise, phosphocreatine is broken down by creatine kinase forming into phosphate and creatine
Energy is released from this and is used to resynthesise 1 ATP
81
What examples are associated with the ATP-PC system
100m sprint and High intensity activites e.g shot putt
82
Ads and dis of ATP-PC system
ads:
- Fastest to create ATP
- Used for high intensity activity
- Resynthesises ATP stores quickly
- No fatiguing effects
dis:
- Limited PC stores
- Full restoration takes 2-3mins
83
What examples are associated with the anaerobic system
400m sprint
84
ads and dis of anaerobic system
ads:
- Fast to create ATP
- Used for high intensity activity
- Resynthesises PC stores quickly
dis:
- Limited PC stores
- Takes around 2-3mins for full restoration
85
What energy sources are used at different intensities
high intensity- Pc stores and glucose
Medium intensity- glucose
low intensity- fats and glucose
86
which energy systems are used at different intensities
High intensity- ATP-PC system and anaerobic system
Medium intensity- anerobic sytem
Low intenisty- Aerobic system
87
Why are the different energy systems used for their different intensities
High intensity- Fastest energy system so suits ATP-PC system
Medium intensity- Fast ATP needed over a longer period of time so suits anaerobic system
Low intensity- ATP needed over a longer period of time without fatigue so suits aerobic system
88
What does EPOC stand for
excess post exercise oxygen consumption
89
What are the 2 components of EPOC
1. Fast component
2. slow component
90
What happens in the fast component of EPOC
- Resynthesises ATP and PC stores
- Completes in 2-3 mins
- 3-4L of oxygen is used to complete fast compoent of EPO
- Replenishes myoglobin stores
91
What happens in the slow component of EPOC
- Takes 1-2 hours to complete
- Heart rate, breathing rate and temperature remains elevated
- Lactic acid is removed:
lactate is oxidised into Co2, water, glucose, glycogen and protein, this helps with recovery and rehydration
92
Define EPOC
The recovery phase following post physical activity
93
What occurs in EPOC when faster/deeper breathing happens
- Oxygen intake is increased
- There is a surplus in oxygen around the body
94
Define VO2 max
The maximum amount of oxygen that can be consumed
95
96
What are the benefits of having a higher VO2 max
- Greater endurance capacity
- Can work at higher intensities for longer
- Delayed OBLA and lactate threshold
- Increased oxygen carrying capacity
97
What type of athlete will gaving a higher VO2 max benefit
Endurance based athletes due to delaying OBLA for longer
Games players as they can have increased recovery through using oxygen (EPOC)
98
What is lactate threshold
The point in which blood lactate levels begin to rise
99
What does OBLA stand for
Onset of Blood Lactate Accumalation
100
At what value does OBLA occur
4mmol of blood lactate
101
What does reaching the lactate threshold line indicate
This indicates that the body is starting to use anaerobic energy systems to create enough energy for the activity
102
What does reaching OBLA indicate
Indicates that the person is using anaerobic energy systems to provide the majority of their energy
This will cause the athlete to fatigue
103
What will happen when you have a higher VO2 max in OBLA and reaching the lactate threshold
A better VO2 max will delay OBLA and the lactate threshold occuring
This allows the athlete to work for longer at higher intensities
104
What are the determining factors of VO2 max
- lifestyle- lack of training/ smoking/ poor diet
- training- continous/ fartklek improves VO2 max/ aerobic
- age- VO2 max decreases with age
- physiology- number of slow twitch fibres/ red blood cells/ capillaries density
- gender- Men have higher VO2 max than women
- genetics- inhereted factors of physiology
- body composition- higher percentage of body fat decreases VO2 max/ poor diet reduces VO2 max
105
What methods of energy expenditure are there
- VO2 max testing
- Lactate sampling
- Indirect calorimetry
- Respiratory exchange ratio
106
What do the methods of energy expenditure do
VO2 max testing- tests maximum oxygen consumption levels
Lactate sampling- Tests levels of lactate in the blood to identify lactate threshold and OBLA
Indirect calorimetry- Measures amount of O2 used and CO2 produced to indicate energy expenditure
Respiratory exchange ratio- Measures CO2 produced and O2 used against one another to indicate most likely energy system being used
107
Who are the methods of energy expenditure most useful for
VO2 max testing- endurance based athletes and measures progression of athletes
Lactate sampling- endurance based atheletes and identifies best zones for maximal aerobic benefits
Indirect calorimetry and Respiratory exchange ratio not used as heavily but still aerobic based performers
108
What are the key points of altitude training
Working above 2500m
Lower partial pressure of oxygen
Need training for at least 30 days
109
What are the benefits of altitude training
- Increased EPO production
- Increased red blood cells/ haemoglobin
- Increased capacity to carry oxygen
- Increased tolerance to lactate/ delayed OBLA
110
What are the drawbacks of altitude training
- altitude sickness
- detraining effects may occur
- pyschological problems with being away from home
111
Who is altitude training best suited for
Best for athletes needing aerobic endurance
112
What is plyometric training
A training that develops power by hopping/jumping/bounding
113
What are the benefits of plyometric training
Increased power
Develops explosive strength
Develops speed
114
What are the drawbacks of plyometric training
Chance of injury
May take time away from skill training
115
Who is plyometric training most suited to
Athletes who need power E.g 100m sprinter
116
What are the key points of High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
Short duration of exercise (20secs)
short rests (10secs)
6-8 cycles
117
What are the benefits of HIIT training
Increased anaerobic capacity
Reduce body fat
118
What are the drawbacks of HIIT
Can take time away from skill training
119
Who is HIIT most suited to
Athletes who need anaerobic power E.g sprinters
Specific team sport players who require speed/power E.g wingers in football or rugby
120
What are the key points of Speed, agility and quickness (SAQ)
Progressive exercise to improve motor abilities E.g ladder drills
Coaching correct movement techniques
121
What are the benefits of SAQ
Increased muscular power
Improved kinaesthetic/spatial awareness
Improved motor skills
Improved reaction time
122
What are the drawbacks of SAQ
Can take time away from other training methods
Doesn’t meet demands of all sporting activities
123
Who is SAQ best suited for
Athletes who need to develop muscular power/speed or develop quick reaction times E.g midfielder in football
124
What does PNF stand for
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
125
How does PNF work and what is the use of it
It is used as a stretching technique to improve flexibility
- Uses muscle spindles and golgi tendons
- Muscle spindles detect how far a muscle stretches and produces a stretch reflex to avoid overstretching
- Isometric contraction causes tension that causes the golgi tendon to override the stretch response (autogenic inhibition)
- This allows for a further stretch to occur
- Can be done with a partner or on your own
126
Benefits of PNF
Increased flexibility for greater joint movement
Increased flexibility for decreased chance of injury
127
Drawbacks of PNF
Can cause injury if done incorrectly
Takes time away from other training methods
Can reduce power if done immediately before activity
128
Who is PNF stretching best suited for
Gymnasts- more aesthetically pleasing positions for higher scores
Hurdlers- more advantageous body positions for the sport
Rugby player- decreases chance of injury
129
What are 5 characteristics of slow oxidative muscle fibres (type 1)
- High number of mitochondria
- High levels of myoglobin
- High capillary density
- High resistance to fatigue
- Low force production
130
How do the characteristics of type 1 muscle fibres aid performance
High resistance to fatigue- Work for a long time for continued contractions
High number of mitochondria- Increases ATP production for continual contractions
High levels of myoglobin/ capillary density- more oxygen carrying capacity for aerobic respiration
131
What are 5 characteristics of fast oxidative muscle fibres (type 2a)
- High force production
- moderate fatiguability
- Medium mitochondrial density
- Medium myoglobin content
- High anaerobic capacity
132
How do the characteristics of type 2a muscle fibres aid performance
High force production- large concentration strength for explosive and powerful contractions
Moderate fatiguability- Can last for longer than type 2x to complete longer races
133
What are 5 characteristics of fast glycolytic muscle fibres (type 2x)
- High PC stores
- High glycogen stores
- Low mitochondrial density
- Low myoglobin content
- High fatiguability
134
How do the characteristics of type 2x muscle fibres aid performance
High PC stores- Used for fast and explosive muscle contractions
High glycogen stores- available for use in anaerobic glycolytic system for fast ATP creation
135
What is the all or none law
When motor unit contracts, all muscle fibres within it must contract
136
How can the body alter the strength of contraction for different moments
It can select different size motor units, larger for more powerful contractions
137
How does the body alter for a POWERFUL contraction
Selects type 2x muscle fibres
Recruit more muscle fibres
138
Define wave summation
Increases the frequency of impulses, this causes the motor unit to keep contracting not allowing it to relax. Provides a sustained and powerful contraction.
139
Define spatial summation
Rotating the frequency of impulses to motor units to delay fatigue and allow them to rest
