anatomy and physiology Flashcards
(333 cards)
1
Q
what is a joint
A
where 2 or more bones meet
2
Q
what is meant by bones articulating a joint
A
the bones that make up the joint that makes the movement
3
Q
how many articulating bones does the shoulder have
A
2
4
Q
how many articulating bones does the elbow have
A
3
5
Q
how many articulating bones does the hip have
A
2
6
Q
how many articulating bones does the knee have
A
2
7
Q
how many articulating bones does the ankle have
A
3
8
Q
what are the articulating bones for the shoulder
A
scapula and humerus
9
Q
what are the articulating bones for the elbow
A
humerus, radius, ulna
10
Q
what are the articulating bones for the hip
A
pelvis, femur
11
Q
what are the articulating bones for the knee
A
femur, tibia
12
Q
what are the articulating bones for the ankle
A
fibula, tibuia, talus (tarsles)
13
Q
what type of joint is the shoulder
A
ball and socket
14
Q
what type of joint is the elbow
A
hinge
15
Q
what type of joint is the hip
A
ball and socket
16
Q
what type of joint is the knee
A
hinge
17
Q
what type of joint is the ankle
A
hinge
18
Q
what is a hinge joint
A
a joint that lets the bone move in one direction
19
Q
what is a ball and socket joint
A
a joint which lets the bone move in any direction
20
Q
what is flexion
A
the angle becoming smaller (eg: a leg moving forwards)
21
Q
what is extension
A
the angle becoming bigger (eg: a leg being moved back down to a standing position)
22
Q
what is hyper - extension
A
going past the normal range of motion
23
Q
what is plantar - flexion
A
pointing the toes
24
Q
what is dorsi - flexion
A
putting the foot flat on the floor
25
what is abduction
movement away from the midline of the body
26
what is adduction
movement towards the midline of the body
27
what is horizontal adduction
when the shoulder is flexed at a 90-degree angle (arm held straight out away from the body) and moves inward toward the midline.
28
what is horizontal abduction
when the arm is held straight out in front at a 90 degree angle to the body and parallel to the ground and is moved away from the body
29
what is the joint action when an angle is increasing at a joint
extension
30
what is the joint action when an angle is decreasing at a joint
flexion
31
what is the joint action when extension happens beyond the normal atanomical position
hyperextension
32
what is the joint action when there is movement that increases the angle between the toe and the shin
plantar flexion
33
what is the joint action when there is movement that decreases the angle between the toe and the shin
dorsi flexion
34
what is the joint action when there is movement along the body away from the mid-line of the body
abduction
35
what is the joint action when there is movemtn toways the mid-line of the body
adduction
36
what is the joint action when there is movement of the limbs away from the mid-line of the body in the transverse plane (parallel to the floor)
horizontal abduction
37
what is the joint action when there is movemtn of the limbs towards the mid-line of the body in the transverse line (towards the floor)
horizontal adduction
38
what joint is increasing the angle possible at
shoulder, elbow, hip
39
what joint is decreasing the angle possible at
shoulder, elbow, hip, knee
40
what joint is extension beyond the normal anatomical position possible at
shoulder, hip
41
what joint is movement that increases the angle between the top and shin possible at
ankle
42
what joint is movement that decreases the angle between the top and shin possible at
ankle
43
what joint is used when moving a body part away from the mid-line of the body
shoulder, hip
44
what joint is used when moving a body part towards from the mid-line of the body
shoulder, hip
45
at which joint is movement of the limbs away from the mid-line of the body towards the transerse plane (parallel to the floor) possible at
shoulder, hip
46
at which joint is movement of the limbs towards from the mid-line of the body towards the transerse plane (parallel to the floor) possible at
shoulder, hip
47
plane
how joints are divided up for movement to take place
48
sagittal plane
through the body (there will be the left and right of the body)
49
what joint action is used at the sagittal plane
flexion, extension, plantar and dossi flexion
50
frontal plane
front and back
51
what joint action is used at the frontal plane
abduction and adduction
52
transverse plane
top and bottom of the body
53
what joint action is used at the transverse plane
horizontal abduction and horizontal adduction
54
axis
point of rotation of the body / body part (skewer / hinge through joint at 90 degrees)
55
stagittal axis
front to back
56
transverse axis
left to right
57
longitudinal axis
head to toe
58
what plane would be used in long jump
sagittal
59
what plane is used in a cartwheel
frontal
60
what plane is used in a a hammer throw
transverse
61
which axis connects to the sagittal axis
transverse
62
which axis connects to the frontal plane
sagittal axis
63
which axis connects to the transverse plane
longitudinal axis
64
which plane and axis would be used when a trampolinist performs a back sumerault
plane: sagittal
axis: transverse
axis: transverse
65
which plane and axis would be used when an ice skater is spinning
plane: transverse
axis: longitudinal
axis: longitudinal
66
which plane and axis would be used when a gymnast performs a cartwheel
plane: frontal
axis: sagittal
axis: sagittal
67
which plane and axis would be used when a sprinter dives out of the blocks
plane: sagittal
axis: transverse
axis: transverse
68
true or false? movement in a forward and backwards action takes place in the frontal plane
false, it takes place in the sagittal plane
69
true or false? if movemnt takes place in the sagittal plane, it must be the transverse axis
true
70
true or false? a summersault takes place in the transverse plane and longitudinal axis
false, it takes place in the sagittal plane and longitudinal axis
71
true or false? a cricket bowl takes place in the sagittal plane and transverse axis
true
72
true or false? if a movement takes place in the frontal plane, it must take place in the sagittal axis
true
73
true or false? a side stretch takes place in the transverse plane and longitudinal axis
true
74
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for the extension of the shoulder
agonist: latissimus dorsi
antagonist: anterior deltoid
antagonist: anterior deltoid
75
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for flexion of the shoulder
agonist: anterior deltoid
antagonist: latissimus dorsi
antagonist: latissimus dorsi
76
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for adduction of the shoulder
agonist: latissimus dorsi
antagonist: middle deltoid
antagonist: middle deltoid
77
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for abduction for the shoulder
agonist: middle deltoid
antagonist: latissimus dorsi
antagonist: latissimus dorsi
78
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for horizontal adduction in the shoulder
agonist: pectorals
antagonist: latissimus dorsi
antagonist: latissimus dorsi
79
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for horizontal abduction in the shoulder
agonist: latissimus dorsi
antagonist: pectorals
antagonist: pectorals
80
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for flexion of the elbow
agonist: bicep
antagonist: tricep
antagonist: tricep
81
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for extension of the elbow
agonist: tricep
antagonist: bicep
antagonist: bicep
82
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for extension of the knee
agonist: quadricpets
antagonist: hamstrings
antagonist: hamstrings
83
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for flexion of the knee
agonist: hanstrings
antagonist: quadricepts
antagonist: quadricepts
84
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for extension and hyper extension of the hip
agonist: gluteals
antagonist: hip flexors
antagonist: hip flexors
85
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for flexion of the hip
agonist: illoposoas / hip flexors
antagonist: gluteals
antagonist: gluteals
86
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for adduction of the hips
agonist: adductors
antagonist: gluteus maximus / medius
antagonist: gluteus maximus / medius
87
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for abduction of the hips
agonist: gluteus medius / minimus
antagonist: adductors
antagonist: adductors
88
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for horizontal adduction of the hips
agonist: adductors
antagonist: gluteus medius / maximus
antagonist: gluteus medius / maximus
89
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for horizontal abduction of the hips
agonist: gluteus medius / maximus
antagonist: adductors
antagonist: adductors
90
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for dorsi - flexion of the ankle
agonist: tibialis anterior
antagonist: gastrocnemius
antagonist: gastrocnemius
91
what is the agonist and antagonist pair for plantar flexion of the ankle
agonist: gastrocnemius
antagonist: tibialis anterior
antagonist: tibialis anterior
92
eccentric contraction
muscle contractions to control the movement (this muscle is under tension)
93
during what type of movements do the agonist and antagonist muscle switch over
flexion and extension (lifting and lowering)
94
why does this happen?
the muscle contracts to control the movement
95
what is isometric muscle contraction
the muscle neither shortens or lengthens, is is static / holding the body's position (eg: holding a press up)
96
what is istotonic concentric muscle contration
the working muscle shortens, this occurs when doing a lifting excersise (eg: lifting a leg to kick a ball)
97
what is isotonic eccentric muscle contraction
the wroking muscles lengthen during exercise, when lowering a weight of the whole body (eg: sinking to the ground when landing a jump)
98
what happens to the agonist muscle when lowering is involved
they swap over
99
what structures make up the cardiovascular system
heart, blood, blood vessels
100
what is the role of the cardiovascular system
to deliver oxygen
to remove carbon dioxide
to remove carbon dioxide
101
what are the blood vessels called
arteries, capillaries, veins
102
what are the heart structures called
vena cava, right atrium, left atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle, septum, aorta
103
what is path that the blood takes through the heart
vena cava -> right atrium -> ateioventricular valve (tricuspid) -> right ventricle -> semi lunar valve -> pulmonary artery -> lungs -> pulmonary vein -> left atrium -> atriorentricula valve (bicuspid) -> left ventricle -> semi lunar valve -> aorta -> body
104
how does the heart muscle contract
the cardiact impulse causes it
105
will the heart continue to beat without the neurons from the brain
yes
106
where does the electrical impulse start
in the right atrium
107
what does the second part on a heart beat mean
the ventricle contracts to send blood around the body
108
what is the noise when you hear your heart beat
the valve opening and closing
109
what is another name for the sa node
pacemaker
110
what is important about the sa node
impulses start here
the impulses travel through the atria walls
this causes the atria to contract
the impulses travel through the atria walls
this causes the atria to contract
111
what can the sa node sometimes be referred to as
myogenic as it emits its own pulse
112
what is important about the av node
delays impulse for 1/10th of a second, which lets the ventricles fill with blood
cardiac impulse reaches the av node (which is on the right side of the atrium)
cardiac impulse reaches the av node (which is on the right side of the atrium)
113
what is important about the bundle of his
it runs through the septum
it separtes the heart into left and right
it separtes the heart into left and right
114
what is important about purkinje fibres
they revieve electrical impulses
they cause the heart to contract inwards to force the blood out of the ventricles, which forces it out fo the heart
they will then relax and the cycle will begin again
they cause the heart to contract inwards to force the blood out of the ventricles, which forces it out fo the heart
they will then relax and the cycle will begin again
115
what is the average resting heart rate
72 - 75 bpm
116
chemoreceptors
located in the muscles and arteries and detects changes in levels of o2, co2 and acidity
117
prorioreceptors
located in joints and muscles and informs the medulla about the changes in movement
118
baroreceptors
sensitive to stretch in vessel walls and informs the medulla of changes to blood pressure
119
heart rate
how many times a minute your heart beats (average: 70 - 78bpm, during excersise 220 - age)
120
stroke volume
volume of blood pumped out of the heart per beat
121
cardiac output
volume of blood pumped out of the heart per minute
122
how can cardiac output be calculated
stroke volume x heart rate
123
maximal excersise
maximum speed or force (eg - 400m race) -> exercise to exhaustion
124
what is a type of maximal excersise
multi-stage fitness test
125
submaximal fitness test
anything below maximum intensity
126
what is an example of submaximal excersise
jog, harvard step test
127
suggest why maximum hr can never be reached during maximal exersise
fatigue, lactic acid formation and energy stores are depleated
128
why does heart rate increase before exersise
due to adrenaline
129
what happens to the body when the heart rate is working maximimally
it will fatigue
130
sa node
pacemaker: small mass of cardiac fibres that generate the pace of the heart
131
purkinje fibres
fibres that stimulate the ventricles of the heart
132
myogenic
term used to descibe the ability of a muscle to initiate its own pulse
133
bundle of his
transmits the cardiac impulse from the av node to the ventricular muscle, down the septum of the heart
134
av node
delays and transfers the cardiac impulse form the upper to lower chambers of the heart
135
chemoreceptor
located in the muscles and arteries and detects change in levels of o2, co2 and acidity
136
proprioceptors
located in joints and muscles and imforms the medulla about changes in movement
137
what hormone does the sypatheic nervous system release
adrenaline
138
what hormone does the parasympathic nervous system release
acetylcholine
139
what effect does the sympathetic nervous system have on the conduction system
stimulates the rate of the sa node
140
what effect does the parasympathetic nervous system have on the conduction system
slows the rate of the sa node and increases the delay of the av node
141
what effect does the sympathetic nervous system have on heart rate
increases it
142
what effect does the parasympathetic nervous system have on heart rate
decreases it
143
what are the physical changes prior to and during exercise
increase in movemnt
increase in cco2 production and acidity of the blood
increase in cco2 production and acidity of the blood
144
what are the active receptors prior to and during exercise
chemoreceptors and proprioceptors
145
what is the brain activity prior to and during exercise
cardic control centre
146
what is the active nervous system prior to and during exercise
sympathetic
147
what is the hormone release prior to and during exercise
adrenaline
148
what is the influence on the sa node prior to and during exercise
it speed up
149
what are the changes in heart rate prior to and during exercise
it increases
150
what are the physical changes after exercise
increase in blood pressure
decrease in co2 production and acidity of the blood
decrease in co2 production and acidity of the blood
151
what are the active receptors after exercise
baroreceptors
152
what is the brain activity after exercise
cardiac control centre (in medulla oblongata)
153
what is the active nervous system after exercise
parasympathetic
154
what is the hormone released after exercise
acetylcholine
155
what is the influence on the sa node after exercise
it slows down
156
what is the changes to heart rate after exercise
it decreases
157
maximal exercise
maximal speed or force (ed: 400m race), exercies to exhaustion
158
submaximal exercise
anything below maximum intensity (eg: a jog)
159
suggest why maximum heart rate nay never be reached during maximal exercise
fatigue and lactic acid formation, energy stores are depleated
160
what is meant by q max
the point at where the cardiac output is at maximum intensity
161
cardiac hypertrophy
increase in muscle of the heart walls (also known as athlete's heart)
162
venous return
amount of blood returning to the veins
163
bradycardia
when resting, heart rate falls below 60bpm (due to cardiac hypertrophy)
164
heart rate range
resting: 70 - 75
during exercise: 220 - age
difference between resting heart rate and maximum heart rate - it increases with training
during exercise: 220 - age
difference between resting heart rate and maximum heart rate - it increases with training
165
maximum cardiac output
highest possible cardiac output (approx. 25 - 30 per min)
166
ejection fraction
percentage of blood pumped out of the heart per beat
167
what is the equation for cardiac output
cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
168
what heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output does someone trained have
heart rate: low
stroke volume: high
cardiac output: remains constant
stroke volume: high
cardiac output: remains constant
169
what heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output does someone untrained have
heart rate: high
stroke volume: low
cardiac output: remains constant
stroke volume: low
cardiac output: remains constant
170
what is the cardiac output for a trained person
resting: same (sv - higher, hr - lower)
steady state / sub maximal exercise: same (sv - higher, hr - lower)
maximal exercise: higher (sv - higher, hr - higher)
steady state / sub maximal exercise: same (sv - higher, hr - lower)
maximal exercise: higher (sv - higher, hr - higher)
171
what is the cardiac output for an untrained person
resting: same (sv - lower, hr - higher)
steady state / sub maximal exercise: same (sv - lower, hr - higher)
maximal exercise: lower (sv - lower, hr - lower)
steady state / sub maximal exercise: same (sv - lower, hr - higher)
maximal exercise: lower (sv - lower, hr - lower)
172
arteries
lots of muscle
high blood pressure
small lumen
highest venous return
blood travels away from the heart towards the body
high blood pressure
small lumen
highest venous return
blood travels away from the heart towards the body
173
capillaries
smallest lumen
takes blood to each individual cell
takes blood to each individual cell
174
veins
large lumen
has valves
transportes oxygenated blood
has valves
transportes oxygenated blood
175
venous return
volume of blood returning to the right side of the heart via the vena cava
176
what does an increase in venous return mean
increased stroke volume (during exercise), which increases blood back to the heart
177
how does smooth muscle in veins increase venous return
so muscle doesn't change shape too much when in use
helps squeeze blood back into the heart
helps squeeze blood back into the heart
178
how does the suction action from the heart increase venous return
increased stroke volume
the harder the heart pumps, the more blood is drawn back in
the harder the heart pumps, the more blood is drawn back in
179
how does pocket valves increase venous return
so blood flows in one direction
valves ensure that this happens
when blood is in valves, they close so that blood cannot go through backflow
valves ensure that this happens
when blood is in valves, they close so that blood cannot go through backflow
180
how does the respiratory pump help venous return
muscles contract and release during breathing in and out
changes occur in the thoract abdominal cavities
help to compress nearby veins and assist blood return to the heart
changes occur in the thoract abdominal cavities
help to compress nearby veins and assist blood return to the heart
181
how does gravity increase venous return
helps blood return to the heart from the upper body
182
how skeletal muscle pump increase venous return
when muscles contract and relax during breathing and and out
muscles press on nearby veins and pump and squeeze the blood towards the heart
183
a cyclist has completed a spin bike training session. why is completing a cool down so important in relation to venous return
a cool down ensures an athlete is using their venous return mechanisms. a cool down ensures that muscles continue to contract (smooth muscle in veins), breathing rate and depth is high (respiratory pump) and heart is elevated when contracting. if a performer fails to cool down, then blood will sit in inlets (blood pooling) and will contain lactic acid, causing muscle soreness. cool downs help blood return to blood for the their heart which subsequently helps blood to be oxygenated and lactic acid to be removed
184
what is the corrrect order of starling's law
increased venous return → greater volume of blood enters the heart between contractions → cardiac muscle stretches → generates a greater force of contraction → increased ejection fraction / stroke volume
185
what factors affect blood pressure
blood flow, periperal resistance, health
186
what are the 2 types of blood pressure and what are the typical readings
high (systolic) and low (diastolic)
120 / 80 mhHg
120 / 80 mhHg
187
what are the effects of aerobic systolic exercise
blood pressure increases (directly proportional to exercise intensity)
once a steady state is released, blood pressure will drop dur to arteriole dialation
once a steady state is released, blood pressure will drop dur to arteriole dialation
188
what are the effects of aerobic diastolic exercise
changes little during endurance type exercises due to vasconstriction, until the later stages of exercise
189
what are the effects of anaerobic systolic exercise
rise significantly
190
what are the effects of anaerobic diastolic exercise
rise significantly
191
vascular shunt mechanism
this is achieved through actions of blood vessels
192
vasodialation
widens the blood vessel, allows more blood to flow through it
in arteries / arterioles
this means working muscles get more blood
in arteries / arterioles
this means working muscles get more blood
193
vasoconstriction
makes the blood vessels smaller, allowing less blood to flow through it
happens in ateries and arterioles
in stomatch and digestive system
happens in ateries and arterioles
in stomatch and digestive system
194
pre capillary splinchters
rings of muscle located at the entrance to capillaries and they can expand or contract to ajust blood flow
195
pre capillary sphincters - vasodialation
works alongside arterioles
this will happen during exercise in arterioles and capillaries suppying the muscles, brain, heart and skin
this will happen during exercise in arterioles and capillaries suppying the muscles, brain, heart and skin
196
pre capillary sphincters - vasoconstriction
will work alongside the arterioles
this will happen in other areas during exercise in areas such as the stomatch to reuduce flow
this will happen in other areas during exercise in areas such as the stomatch to reuduce flow
197
how is vascular shunt (blood redistribution) controlled
increase in co2, acidity and movement and blood pressure during movement
the changes are detected by the relevant receptor (increased co2 by the chemoreceptors, increased movement by proprioceptors, changes in blood pressure by baroreceptors)
receptors send their information to the vasomotor centre located in the medulla
the vasomotor centre / medulla send information via the sympathetic nervous system to the arterioles
precapillary sphincters are activated
the sphincters leading to the areas needing blood (eg: muscles) loosen and the vessels and vasodilate
sphincters to organs that don’t need blood during exercise (stomach) tighten and the vessels vasoconstrict
198
how is the vascular shunt controlled
increase in co2, acidity and movement and blood pressure during movement
the changes are detected by the relevant receptor (increased co2 by the chemoreceptors, increased movement by proprioceptors, changes in blood pressure by baroreceptors)
receptors send their information to the vasomotor centre located in the medulla
the vasomotor centre / medulla send information via the sympathetic nervous system to the arterioles
precapillary sphincters are activated
the sphincters leading to the areas needing blood (eg: muscles) loosen and the vessels and vasodilate
sphincters to organs that don’t need blood during exercise (stomach) tighten and the vessels vasoconstrict
199
how is blood pressure controlled
increase in blood pressure is detected by the baroreceptors and this is then passed to the medulla or the vasomotor control centre. the sympathetic nervous system will stimulate the pre-capillary sphinceters and the arterioldes will vasodialate (open) or vasoconstrict (close)
200
avo2 diff
the difference in the oxygen content of the blood between the arterial blood and the venous blood
201
how does avo2 diff change as a result of exercise and training
during exercise, avo2 diff will increase as the muscles need more and use more oxygen and more oxygen is needed for each muscle contraction
this will happen in working muscles
at rest: avo2 diff is low as the muscles don't need as much oxygen
training will improve avo2 diff and can create more energy and avoid fatigue as it can extract more oxygen from the blood
202
how will training help cardiovascular adaptations
it will result in the body structures becoming more efficient
203
increase in haemoglobin in the red blood cells
more oxygen and can create more energy for the muscles
204
increase in number of capillaries (capillarisation) around the alveoli and muscle tissues
more blood to the muscle tissues and more gaseous exchange
205
blood becomes less viscous with training
lower stroke volume, meaning that the blood can be pumped easier and will flow more easily, leading to more oxygen and waste products being removed
206
an athlete becomes better at removing / buffering lactic acid
their performance will be sustained for longer (less fatigue)
207
an athlete becomes better at redistributing blood (vasodilation and vasoconstriction)
more blood can be pumped back to the heart and working muscles
208
what are the causes of heart disease
build up of fatty deposits (atheronal) on the walls of arteries around the heart (coronary artery). the build up up atheroma, means that the arteries will narrow, restricting the blood flow to the heart (atherosclerosis)
209
what makes you higher risk to heart disease
smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, high lipoprotein, lack of exercise, diabetes, thrombosis
210
prevention of heart disease
eat a healthy and balanced diet (low fat, high fibre), avoid too much sugar (it increases your chance of getting diabetes)
211
causes of high blood pressure
no symptoms, age (the older you get, the more likely you are to get it), having close relatives with high blood pressure, ethnicity (black aftican, black caribbean, south asian - higher risk), unhealthy diet (especially if it is high in salt), being overweight, smoking, too much alcohol, feeling stressed over a long period of time
212
prevention of high blood pressure
healthy and balanced diet, exercise regularly (150 mins of exercise per week), lose weight if overweight
213
types of cholesterol levels
HDL and non-HDL
214
what is HDL
high density lipoprotein - carries cholesterol away from the cells and to the liver to be removed, higher the levels, the better
215
what is non-HDL
'bad cholesterol’, can build up in blood vessels if there is too much
216
what can high cholesterol levels lead to
heart disease, strokes, peripheral arterial disease (pad)
217
prevention of high cholesterol levels
eat less fatty food, exercise more than 150 mins per week, stop smoking, cut down on alcohol
218
causes of a stroke
over 50 years old, from black / south asian background, have sickle cell disease, unhealthy lifestyle, take combined contraceptive pill, migraines, pregnant and have pre-eclampsia and just had a baby
219
what are the types of stroke
ischaemic and haemorrhagic
220
ischaemic stroke
blood supply stopped due to a blood clot - 85% of all cases
221
haemorrhagic stroke
weakened blood vessel supplying the brain bursts
222
prevention of a stroke
quit smoking, eat a balanced diet exercise, cut down on alcohol
223
why does blood flow to the brain remain the same during rest and during exercise and blood flow to the skin increases
the skin turns red due to the increases amount of blood reaching it to try to cool the body down. the brain receives the say amount of blood as it is always needed for the brain to function
224
role of the respiratory system
oxygen is breathed in from the atmosphere -> through gaseous exchange in the lungs this oxygen is passed through the blood -> it is used to create respiration energy -> this ensures that the performer cna continue to exercise without fatigue
when exercising the muscle produces carbon dioxide -> this turns the blood more acidic / lowers the blood ph -> co2 is a waste product that needs to be removed -> via the vascular system co2 is transported in the blood to the lungs -> through gaseous exchange, it is passed through the lungs / alveoli and then is breathed out into the atmosphere
when exercising the muscle produces carbon dioxide -> this turns the blood more acidic / lowers the blood ph -> co2 is a waste product that needs to be removed -> via the vascular system co2 is transported in the blood to the lungs -> through gaseous exchange, it is passed through the lungs / alveoli and then is breathed out into the atmosphere
225
tidal volume
volume inspired or expired per breath (ml)
226
frequency
number of breaths taken per minute
227
minute ventilation
the amount of air breathed in or out per minute (l/min)
228
inspiratory reserve volume
the maximal volume of air inspired following the end of resting inspiration (ml)
229
expiratory reserve volume
the maximal volume of air expired following the end of resting expiration (ml)
230
residual volume
the volume of air remaining in the lungs at the end of maximal expiration (l)
231
what is the equation for minute ventilation
minute ventilation = tidal volume x frequency
232
what happens to tidal volume during exercise
increases (more oxygen is needed to stop the muscles from fatiguing)
233
what happens to inspiratory reserve volume during exercise
deceases
234
what happens to expiratory reserve volume during exercise
decrease (you take in more than you expel)
235
what happens to residual volume during exercise
remains the same (lungs are inflated)
236
what happens to minute ventilation during exercise
increases (muscles need more oxygen)
237
what happens to frequency of breathing during exercise
increase (more air is needed for the muscles)
238
sympathetic nervous system
increases breathing rate
239
parasympathetic nervous system
decreases breathing rate
240
mechanics of breathing
in order to breathe in, our thoracic cavity increases in size - to do this, external intercostal muscles (these are locate on the outside of our rib cage) and our diaphragm contract
this forces the rib cage to move up and out and increases the size of out thoracic cavity. air will then rush in
when we are exercising, we ned more air to go into out lungs (deeper breaths), so we use additional muscles, such as the sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor to lift our rib cage even furth up and out
when we are at rest and want to breathe out (expire), it happens passively
this means that the inspiratory muscles relax and the thoracic cavity naturally falls back
during exercise, we need to breathe out more quickly and forcibly (due to a greater need to get rid of carbon dioxide), therefore the process becomes an active one
muscles such as the internal intercostals (located on either side of the rib cage) and the abdominals pull on the thoracic cavity to bring it back down and in and as a result air is forced out
241
proprioceptors
detect change in muscle movement
242
chemoreceptors
detect change in ph
243
baroreceptors
detect changes in blood pressure
244
increase in depth of breathing
increase of co2 → detected by chemoreceptors → messages sent to medulla (rcc) → messages sent via the sympathetic nerves → to inspiratory muscles (phrenic nerve is used to send messages to diaphragm) → causes inspiratory muscles to contract → additional muscles are used during exercise to increase depth of breathing
245
increasing rate of breathing
expansion of lungs is detected by lung stretch receptors → messages are sent of the medulla (rcc) → messages are sent to expiratory muscles used during exercise → these muscles contract → pulling the rib cage down and out and forcing the air out → increasing the rate of breath during exercise
246
what is the partial pressure of gas
the pressure of an individual gas within a mixture of gases
247
characteristics of the alveoli and capillaries that makes them a suitable surface for gaseous exchange
alveoli walls are very thin - short diffusion distance
millions of alveoli throughout the lungs - large surface area, more sites for gaseous exchange
dense capillary network - large blood supply, more diffusion can take place
blood moves slowly through the capillaries - more time for gaseous exchange
layers of moisture - can assist diffusion, allows gases to exchange more smoothly
pressure / concentration gradient exists between alveoli and capillaries - the bigger the difference of partial pressure, the faster the gases move
248
where does oxygen have the highest pp, lowest pp and where does gas move from during external respiration
highest pp: alveoli
lowest pp: capillaries
gases move from where to where: alveoli -> capillaries through diffusion
lowest pp: capillaries
gases move from where to where: alveoli -> capillaries through diffusion
249
where does carbon dioxide have the highest pp, lowest pp and where does gas move from during external respiration
highest pp: capillary
lowest pp: alveoli
moves from where to where: capillary -> alveoli through diffusion
lowest pp: alveoli
moves from where to where: capillary -> alveoli through diffusion
250
what are the characteristics of the alveoli and capillaries that makes them a suitable surface for gaseous exchange
alveoli walls are very thin - short diffusion distance
millions of alveoli throughout the lungs - large surface area, more sites for gaseous exchange
dense capillary network - large blood supply, more diffusion can take place
blood moves slowly through the capillaries - more time for gaseous exchange
layers of moisture - can assist diffusion, allows gases to exchange more smoothly
pressure / concentration gradient exists between alveoli and capillaries - the bigger the difference of partial pressure, the faster the gases move
251
where does oxygen have the highest pp, lowest pp and where do gases move from during external respiration
highest pp: alveoli
lowest pp: capillary
gases move from where to where: alveoli -> capillary via diffusion
lowest pp: capillary
gases move from where to where: alveoli -> capillary via diffusion
252
where does oxygen move in external respiration
from the alveoli to the capillaries due to a pressue gradient through the process of diffusion
253
where does carbon dioxide move in external respiration
capillaries to the alveoli due to a pressure gradient through a process of diffusion
254
where does oxygen have the highest pp, lovest pp and where does it move from during internal respiration
highest pp: muscle
lowest pp: capillary
gases move from where to where: muscle to capillary through the process of diffusion
lowest pp: capillary
gases move from where to where: muscle to capillary through the process of diffusion
255
where does carbon dioxide have the highest pp, lovest pp and where does it move from during internal respiration
highest pp: capillary
lowest pp: muscle
move from where to where: capillary to muscles through the process of diffusion
lowest pp: muscle
move from where to where: capillary to muscles through the process of diffusion
256
what does a majority of oxygen (98%) combine with to be transported around the body
haemoglobin
257
how much oxygen dissolves in the plasma
0.02
258
what does a majority of carbon dioxide (70%) combine with to form carbonic acid
water
259
what is it called when carbon dioxide combines woth haemoglobin
carbaminohaemoglobin
260
how much co2 dissolves in the plasma
0.07
261
why does oxygen leave the lungs and enter the blood
due to a high pressure gradient
262
what does haemoglobin have a high affinity for
oxygen
this means that when the po2 in the blood in the capillaries approaching the lungs is low, haemoglobin combines quickly with oxygen, which forms oxyhaemoglobin
this means that when the po2 in the blood in the capillaries approaching the lungs is low, haemoglobin combines quickly with oxygen, which forms oxyhaemoglobin
263
oxygen association
when the po2 in the blood in the capillaries approaching the lungs is low, haemoglobin combines quickly with oxygen, which forms oxyhaemoglobin
264
oxygen dissociation
po2 in muscle tissue is lower than in the blood in the capillaries approaching the muscle, so oxygen is relased from haemoglobin (blood) and it goes into the muscle
265
what does oxygen combine with in the muscles
myoglobin to form oxymyoglobin
266
what does myoglobin do
transports and stores oxygen in the muscles
267
what does it mean when it says that myoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen
it attracts oxygen into the muscle and speeds up the rate of diffusion
it also means that even at a very low po2, myoglobin will remain saturates (oxygen is still available for working muscles for energy)
it also means that even at a very low po2, myoglobin will remain saturates (oxygen is still available for working muscles for energy)
268
saturation
haemoglobin is combined with oxygen (fully loaded with oxygen molecules)
269
dissociation
when oxygen leaves the haemoglobin to be taken up by the muscles
270
association
where oxygen binds with / attaches to haemoglobin
271
what does oxygen associate form and to
associates: at the lungs
dissociates: at muscles (because of pp of o2 is high at lungs and low at muscles)
dissociates: at muscles (because of pp of o2 is high at lungs and low at muscles)
272
what happens to oxygen during exercise
increase of o2 at the muscles is required, so dissociation has to occur to a greater extent
273
what are the changes that occur in the blood and muscles that affect association and dissociation
increase in temperature (in blood and muscles during exercise)
decrease in ppo2 (in muscles during exercise, meaning that there is a greater diffusion gradient)
increase in co2 (blood returning to lungs, greater co2 diffusion gradient)
increase in acidity (lactic aid lowers ph, blood becomes more acidic)
this moves the curve to the right - known as the bohr shift
decrease in ppo2 (in muscles during exercise, meaning that there is a greater diffusion gradient)
increase in co2 (blood returning to lungs, greater co2 diffusion gradient)
increase in acidity (lactic aid lowers ph, blood becomes more acidic)
this moves the curve to the right - known as the bohr shift
274
what are the benefits to the bohr shift for atheletes
more oxygen ready to use by the muscles, meaning that they experience less fatigue
275
what affect would the bohr shift have on an athlete
increase of dissociation of oxygen for haemoglobin
more oxygen is readily available to be used by muscles, meaning less fatigue and a greater aerobic performance
more oxygen is readily available to be used by muscles, meaning less fatigue and a greater aerobic performance
276
increased alveoli used
more gaseous exchange
gets o2 in and co2 out
gets o2 in and co2 out
277
capillarisation (increased capillaries)
bring oxygen (red blood cells)
more gaseous exchange (more alveoli into the blood)
more gaseous exchange (more alveoli into the blood)
278
more myoglobin
greater storage and transport of o2 in muscles
more o2 -> mitochondria
more o2 -> mitochondria
279
increased number of mitochondria
gives more energy (aerobic power)
doesn't directly help gaseous exchange
doesn't directly help gaseous exchange
280
identify the seven nutrients in the body
carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, water, fats, vitimins, fibres
281
which nutrients are used to provide energy to the body (macronutrients)
carbohydrates, proteins, fats
282
what is the chemical symbol for adenosine triphosphate (atp)
a-℗-℗-℗
283
why is adenosine triphosphate important
it is the only suitable form of energy for muscular contraction
284
what enzyme is required for the processes to occur (in adenosine triphosphate)
atpase
285
how many seconds of activity is possible with the atp stored in the body
2 / 3 seconds
286
where in the muscle is atp stored
in the sarcoplasm
287
phosphocreatine
rapid energy provider, stored in the muscle
288
carbohydrates
primary energy source, stored as glycogen and glucose
289
fat
secondary energy source, stored as asipose tissue / triglyceride / fatty acids
290
what does phosphocreatine (pc) provide energy for
very high intensity / explosive activity
lasts between: 2 - 10 seconds
examples: 100m spring, carrying out a rugby tackle
lasts between: 2 - 10 seconds
examples: 100m spring, carrying out a rugby tackle
291
what foods is phosphocreatine found in
red meat and fish
292
where is phosphocreatine stored
sarcoplasm
293
what energy does carbohydrates provide for
high intensity activity without oxygen (anaerobic metabolism)
last between: 10 seconds -> 3 minutes
example: 200m, 400m, 800m
low intensity (aerobic)
lasts for: 3+ minutes
examples: 1500m, marathon, cross country
last between: 10 seconds -> 3 minutes
example: 200m, 400m, 800m
low intensity (aerobic)
lasts for: 3+ minutes
examples: 1500m, marathon, cross country
294
what foods can carbohydrates be found in
potatoes, bread, pasta, rice, cereal, fruit
295
how are carbohydrates stored
glycogen in sarcoplasm / liver
296
what type of energy store are carbohydrates
primary
297
what type of energy does triglyceride provide for
low intensity (endurance)
examples: marathon, 5km
examples: marathon, 5km
298
what foods is triglyceride found in
dairy products, meats, nuts, oils
299
where is triglyceride stored
around organs and under skin (adipose tissue)
300
what is triglyceride limited by
needs a high volume of oxygen as it takes time to break down fats a fuel
301
what type of energy source is triglyceride
secondary
302
what diet would you recommend for a shot putter
red meat and fish diet
303
what diet would you recommed for a 100m swimmer
carbohydrates (such as bread and pasta), meat and poultry (as the exercise is still explosive)
304
what diet would you recommend for a 25k cyclist
diary and fat diet
NOT high fat - no athlete should have a high fat diet
NOT high fat - no athlete should have a high fat diet
305
is atp-pc aerobic or anaerobic
anaerobic
306
is anaerobic glycolytic aerobic or anaerobic
anaerobic
307
is aerobic energy system aerobic or anaerobic
aerobic
308
what type of intensity is atp the fuel for
maximal
309
what type of intensity is pcr the fuel for
very high
310
what type of intensity is glycogen the fuel for
high
311
what type of intensity is glycogen and fats the fuel for
low
312
what is the duration of atp food fuel
0 - 3 seconds
313
what is the duration of pcr food fuel
3 - 10 seconds
314
what is the duration of glycogen food fuel
10 seconds - 3 minutes
315
what is the duration of glycogen and fats food fuel
3 minutes +
316
what is a sporting example of atp food fuel
weightlifter
317
what is a sporting example of pcr food fuel
100m sprint
318
what is a sporting example of glycogen food fuel
800m
319
what is a sporting example of glycogen and fats food fuel
marathon
320
what energy transfer system does atp use
atp-pc
321
what energy transfer system does pcr use
atp-pc
322
what energy transfer system does glycogen use
anaerobic glycolytic
323
what energy transfer system does glycogen and fats use
aerobic
324
what is the fuel (energy) to re-synthesise atp
phosphocreatine
325
what is the site of reaction of stored atp
sarcoplasm
326
what is the site of reaction of the pc system
sarcoplasm
327
how many seconds of activity does stored atp have
0 - 2 seconds
328
how many seconds of activity does the pc system have
2 - 10 seconds
329
what is the fuel used in the pc system
pc
330
what enzyme is used in stored atp
atpase
331
what enzyme is used in stored the pc system
kinase and creatine
332
how much atp does the pc system produce
1
333
what is the breakdown of glycogen / glucose knows as
glycolysis
