Anatomy exam simpler/shorter Flashcards
(104 cards)
1
Q
- The types of bones. The long bone general morphology
A
- Long bones
o Shaft
o Epiphysis- proximal and distal
o Outer layer of compact bone
o Medullary cavity - short bones
- Flat bones
- Irregular bones
- Pneumatic bones
2
Q
- The morphology of typical vertebra
A
Typical features:
- Vertebral body
- Vertebral foramen
- Vertebral arch
- Spinous process
- Transverse process
- Accessory process
- Mamillary process
- Cranial and caudal articular process
- Cranial and caudal vertebral notch
- Cranial and caudal extremity
Vertebral column divided into regions:
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Lumbar
- Sacral
- Coccygeal/caudal
3
Q
- The cervical vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features): ATLAS
A
- No spinous process
- Dorsal and ventral arches
- Dorsal and ventral tuberculum
- Occipital arch
- Lateral vertebral foramen
4
Q
- The cervical vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features: AXIS
A
- Ventral crest
- Dens articulates with the fovea dentis of the atlas
- Arch has expanded spinous process
- Caudal vertebral notch
- Transverse process have transverse foramen
- Lateral vertebral foramen
5
Q
- The cervical vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features): CERVICAL VERTABRA (simple normal kind)
A
- Bodies of cervical vertebrae get progressively shorter from cranial to caudal
- Spinous processes increase in length from cranial to caudal
- Transverse processes present (except C7), called costotransverse processes, with transverse foramen
- Dorsal and ventral tubercles present on transverse processes
- Articular processes are large
- Lateral vertebral foremen
6
Q
- The thoracic vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features)
A
- Number of Th. = number of ribs
- Tall spinous processes directed caudodorsally
- Deep caudal notches
- Short articular processes
- Mamillary processes present
7
Q
- The lumbar vertebrae in domestic mammals (morphology, typical features)
A
- Absent costal facets
- Spinous processes are shorter and directed craniodorsally
- Expanded transverse processes called costal processes
- Articular process fuse with mammillary process to form mamillar-articular processes
8
Q
- The structure of the sacrum (morphology, typical features)
A
- Fused to form sacrum in all domestic species
- S1 has expanded wings that form an articulation with the pelvic girdle
- Dorsal surface has spinous processes directed caudally
- Ventral surface marked by transverse line
- Sacral canal formed by successive vertebral foramens
- Ventral sacral foramen and dorsal sacral foramen
- Transverse processes replaced by lateral sacral crest
9
Q
- The types of ribs. Classification of ribs. The number of ribs in domestic mammals
The parts of the sternum. The morphology of the RIB
A
Type of ribs:
- Costae Sternales -> articulate with sternum
- Costae asternales -> indirectly connected to the sternum through cartilage
- Costae fluctuantes -> not connected with sternum, free in the musculature
Number of paired ribs in domestic mammals:
Ru 13
Ca 12 - 14
Su 13-16
Eq 18
Features:
- Ribs are paired
- Proximal aspect has the head and tubercle of the rib
- Neck of the rib is between the head and tubercle
- Body of the rib has a costal sulcus
10
Q
- The types of ribs. Classification of ribs. The number of ribs in domestic mammals
The parts of the sternum. The morphology of the STERNUM
A
- Sternabrae joined together by the intersternal cartilages
- Manubrium
- Cranial end of manubrium is cartilage
- Body
- Costal notch for articulation with costal cartilage
- Xiphoid process is the last sternebra
11
Q
- The morphology of the scapula
A
- Triangular in outline, extends into crescent shaped cartilage
- Spine of the scapula creates cranial supraspinous fossa and caudal infraspinous fossa
- Medial surface has subscapular fossa
- Acromion- well developed process at the end of the spine of the scapula. Extended to form hamatus process in dog and suprahamatus process in cat
- Cranial border forms scapular notch
- Cranio-medial notch in horses called glenoid notch
12
Q
- The morphology of the humerus
A
- Humeral head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
- Greater tubercle has a cranial and caudal part
- Lesser tubercle
- Tubercles separated by bicipital groove, further subdivided by a flat protuberance in cow and an intermediate tubercle in horses
- Deltoid tuberosity extends distally to become the humeral crest
- Teres major tuberosity on the medial surface in cow and horse. Replaced by crest of the lesser tubercle in carnivores
13
Q
- The morphology of the antebrachial skeleton (Radius and Ulna)
A
Radius
- Radius is the larger of the two bones in the forelimb, rod-shaped
- Radial tuberosity
- Distal extremity forms a trochlea and presents at the articular surface towards the carpus
- Radial styloid process
- Distal part of the ulna is completely fused to the radius in the cow, in horses the lateral styloid process is formed instead
- Interosseous space is the gap between the radius and ulna
Ulna
- Olecranon and olecranon tuber form the prominent part of the elbow
- Distal extremity is fused with radius, continues as the lateral styloid process which articulates with the proximal carpals
14
Q
- The carpal bones in domestic mammals (number and names)
A
Proximal Row
- Radial carpal
- Intermediate carpal
- Ulnar carpal
- Accessory carpal
Distal Row
- First carpal
- Second carpal
- Third carpal
- Fourth carpal
Proximal row articulates with the radius and ulna in the antebrachiocarpal joint
Distal row articulates with the metacarpal bones to form the carpometacarpal joint
15
Q
- The metacarpal bones in domestic animals
A
- Proximal extremity has articular surface for articulation with the distal row of carpal bones
- Metacarpal tuberosity forms the insertion for the extensor carpi radialis muscle
- Sagittal crest divides trochlea of distal extremity into medial and lateral condyles
- Flattened/rectangular cross section (in comparison to metatarsals round cross section)
16
Q
- The bones of digit in horse
A
- Proximal phalanx has a proximal extremity, shaft, and distal extremity
- P1 has articular facets and prominences on each end
- Middle phalanx is shorter than P1 but similar
- Distal phalanx modified to conform to the hoof
- Hoof has flexor and solar surface
17
Q
- The morphology of the ilium
A
- Ilium forms dorsocranial part of hip bone, extends obliquely from acetabulum to sacrum
- Cranial wing orientation is species specific
- Columnar body contributes to acetabulum
- Iliac crest connects the coxal and sacral tubers
- Gluteal surface has gluteal lines
- Ventral border has the arcuate line and psoas tubercle
18
Q
- The morphology of the ischium
A
- Ischium body forms part of the acetabulum
- Dorsal border of the ischium body forms ischiatic spine
- Lesser ischiatic notch
- Caudal plate is thickened to form ischial tuber
- Caudal borders meet in concave ischial arch
19
Q
- The morphology of the pubis
A
- Pubis is L shaped and contributes to the formation of the obturator foramen
- Body of pubis
- Transverse acetabular branch
- Cranial edge of acetabular branch is called the pecten of the pubis, forms the iliopubic eminence
- Ventral surface of iliopubic eminence is crossed by pubic groove in horses
- Sagittal symphysial branch
- Pubis of each side fuses in pubic symphysis
- Ventral surface of pubic symphysis has protruding ventral pubic tubercle
20
Q
- The morphology of the femur
A
- Head articulates with acetabulum
- Greater trochanter found laterally on the proximal extremity
- Trochanteric fossa divides the greater trochanter and the neck of the femur. Divided into cranial and caudal parts in the horse
- Lesser trochanter present on medial side. Joined to greater trochanter by trochanteric crest
- Additional process, third trochanter present in horses
- Diaphysis formed by shaft. Rough caudal surface, smooth cranially
- Bicipital tuberosity
- Trochlea on distal extremity, articulates with the patella and separated by a groove, with proximal protuberance in horses
- Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia
- Intercondylar fossa divides the condyles
- Lateral condyle has extensor fossa
- Supracondylar fossa present in horses on the caudodistal aspect
- Lateral and medial supracondylar tuberosities
- Supracondylar crest joins tuberosity to condyles
21
Q
- The morphology of the tibia and fibula
A
Tibia
- Cross section of proximal end is triangular
- Lateral and medial condyles separated by popliteal notch
- Intercondylar eminence between the articular surfaces of the condyles
- Lateral aspect of condyles has articular surface for articulation with fibula. In cows, the fibula is fused here
- Tibial tuberosity is a cranial projection from the shaft
- Extensor groove runs on craniolateral aspect of tibia
- Nutrient foramen
- Lateral malleolus is a distinct bone in the cow
Fibula
- Fibula always lateral to tibia
- Interosseous space divides tibia and fibula
- Divided into a proximal head, a neck, a shaft, lateral malleolus
- Head of fibula articulates with tibia
- Distal extremity incorporated into tibia, forming lateral malleolus
22
Q
- The bones of the foot (tarsus – number and names, metacarpus/metatarsus differentiation in horse and cow)
A
Proximal Row
- Tibial tarsal/ Talus
- Fibular tarsal/ Calcaneus
Central Row
- Central tarsal
Distal Row
- First tarsal
- Second tarsal
- Third tarsal
- Fourth tarsal
Metacarpal
- Proximal extremity articulates with the distal row of carpal bones
- Metacarpal tuberosity forms the insertion for the extensor carpi radialis muscle
23
Q
- The structure of the distal phalanx (ungular bone) in the horse
A
Features:
- Lateral and medial cartilage at each side
- Distal sesamoid bone called navicular
- 3 surfaces
o Solar
o Parietal
o Coronary - 2 borders
o Solar
o Coronary- forms extensor process
24
Q
- The construction of the synovial joint and the joints classification
A
Synovial joints- joints where the articulating bones are separated by a fluid filled joint cavity
Classification:
- Simple- 2 bones
- Complex- more than 2 bones
- Incongruent- bones do not fit well with each other
- Congruent- bones fit well to each other
Types:
- Plane- vertebrae
- Hinge- movement in one plane
- Pivot- ring movement
- Condylar- limited rotation
- Ellipsoidal- movement in two planes
- Saddle- round rotations with limitations
- Spheroidal- rotation in several planes
25
22. The ligaments of the vertebral column
- Short ligaments
o Intraarcuale
o Intratransversa
o Intraspinous
- Long ligaments
o Dorsal longitudinal
o Ventral longitudinal
o Nuchal
26
23. The morphology of the atlantooccipital joint
Atlantooccipital joint- between occipital bone of skull and atlas
Features:
- Complex, congruent, ellipsoidal
- Articulation between occipital condyles and corresponding concavities of atlas
- Own joint capsule
- Supported by dorsal and ventral atlantoaxial membranes
27
24. The morphology of the atlantoaxial joint
Atlantoaxial joint- between atlas and axis
Features:
- Simple, congruent, pivot
- Articulation between dens and fovea dentis
- Supported by dorsal and ventral atlantoaxial membranes
28
25. The morphology of the shoulder joint
Shoulder joint- between scapula and humerus in the glenoid cavity
Features:
- Simple, incongruent, spheroidal
- Articulation between humeral head and glenoid cavity
- Glenoid cavity extended by glenoid lip
- Medial and lateral glenohumeral ligament
- Transverse humeral ligament
- Coracohumeral ligament
29
26. The morphology of the elbow joint
Elbow joint- between humerus, radius, and ulna
Features:
- Complex, congruent, hinge
- Articulation between radial articular facet, trochlear notch, and the condyle of the humerus
- Lateral and medial collateral ligament
- Olecranon ligament
30
27. The morphology of the hip joint
Sacro-iliac joint- between acetabulum of pelvis and head of femur
Features:
- Simple, incongruent, spheroidal
- Articulation between iliac tuberosity and with the sacrum
- Acetabular lip
- Intra-articular ligament limits movement
- Intracapsular ligament connects acetabulum to head of femur
31
28. The morphology of the stifle joint
Stifle joint-
- Femorotibial joint- between femur and tibia
- Femoropatellar joint- between femur and patella
- Tibiofibular joint- between tibia and fibular
Features:
- Simple, incongruent
- Tibiofibular joint not present in cow due to fusion of tibia and fibular
- Medial and lateral collateral ligaments
- Cranial and caudal cruciate ligaments
- Cranial and caudal tibial ligaments of the menisci
- Femoropatellar and patellar ligament
- Articulations share a common synovial cavity in dogs
32
29. The borders of the oral cavity (partition into oral vestibule and oral cavity proper), oral rim
- Divided into:
o Vestibule
● Labial vestibule (between teeth and lips)
● Buccal vestibule (between teeth and cheeks)
o Proper oral cavity (space between dental arcades)
33
30. The name the major salivary glands and its orifice location
- Parotid
o Location
▪ Ventral to auricular cartilage in retromandibular fossa
▪ Opens into oral vestibule at top of small papilla opposite 3-5th cheek tooth
- Mandibular
o Location
▪ Close to angle of jaw, partially covered by parotid gland
▪ Drains into duct that passes ventral to mucosa of oral cavity floor, close to lingual ferniculum, opens with major sublingual duct on the sublingual caruncle
o Species differences
▪ Ru, Ca- bigger than parotid gland
▪ Ca- oval shaped, caudal to monostomatic gland, and between linguofacial and maxillary nerves
- Sublingual
o Monostomatic (major)
▪ Location
● Caudal compact gland with single draining duct
● Shares common opening with mandibular duct on sublingual caruncle
o Species differences
▪ Eq- monostomatic/major is absent
▪ Cow- conical papillae in fold of polystomatic
34
32. The name of the minor salivary glands and its orifice location
Polystomatic (minor sublingual) glands
- Location
o Mucosa of lips, cheek, tongue, palate and sublingual oral floor
- Species differences:
o Ca- additional buccal gland medial to zygomatic arch, zygomatic gland
o Ru- additional middle group of buccal glands
35
31. The vegetative innervation of the salivary glands
- Sympathetic
o Cranial cervical ganglion
- Parasympathetic
o Cranial nerves 5 trigeminal, 7 facial, 9 glossopharyngeal
36
33. The parts of the tooth, the differences between the arachidonic and hypselodontic teeth, teeth classification, deciduous and permanent dentition formula, (TYPES, MINERALIZED SUBSTANCES AND OTHER DEFINITIONS)
Types of teeth:
- Brachyodont- enamel envelops short exposed crown
o Ca, Su
- Hypsedont- high crowned teeth, large portion of crown held in reserve to be exposed gradually and account for attrition
o Eq, Ru
Mineralised substances:
- Enamel-
- Dentin- encloses pulp cavity, produced by odontoblasts
- Cement- softest, outermost layer
Other definitions:
- Anelodont- limited growth period
o Domestic species
- Elodent- grow throughout life
o Rodents
- Haplodont- conical shaped crown covered in enamel e.g. canines
o Ca
- Bunodont- coronal eminences
o Su
- Secodont- eminence arranged in row
- Isognathic- upper dental arcade rests on lower dental arcade
o Su
37
33. The parts of the tooth, the differences between the arachidonic and hypselodontic teeth, teeth classification, deciduous and permanent dentition formula, (SURFACES, PARTS)
Surfaces:
- Labial- towards lips
- Buccal- towards cheeks
- Lingual- adjacent to tongue
- Vestibule- towards vestibule of mouth
- Fascies contactus- adjacent to next rostral tooth in dental arch
- Occlusal surface- contacts the opposite arcade
- Masticatory- contacts adjacent arcade (row of teeth)
Parts:
- Crown- exposed part above gums
- Cusp- eminence of the crown
- Neck- at gumline, where enamel ends
- Root- below gum, in bony alveolus
- Dental cavity- contains pulp
- Gingivae- gums, highly vascularised mucosa
- Periodontal ligament- attaches crown to alveolar socket
- Apical foramen- allows passage of vessels and nerves through root canal
38
34. The parts and aspects of the tongue
- Apex
- Corpus
- Root
- Frenulum linguae- where the body attaches to oral floor
- Median groove- marks the dorsal aspect
- Lyssa- rod shaped fibrous body that extends from tip to root on the ventral surface
o Ca only
- Species differences
o Cow- transverse lingual fossa
o Eq- strengthened by cartilage in dorsal part
39
35. The types of tongue papillae and its location
- Mechanical
o Filiform- rostral 2/3 tongue
o Conical- Fe over dorsal surface, Cow over base
o Marginal- tip and side of tongue, aids suckling in newborns
- Gustatory- covered by taste buds
o Fungiform- rostral 2/3
o Vallate- caudal 1/3
o Foliate- in papillae parallel folds in either side of tongue midline
40
36. The muscles of the tongue and partition and their origins
- Intrinsic muscle (m. lingualis proprius)- numerous fibre bundles:
o Superficial longitudinal
o Deep longitudinal
o Transverse
o Perpendicular
- Extrinsic muscles
o Styloglossal
▪ Origin- stylohyoid
o Hyoglossal
▪ Origin- basihyoid
o Genioglossal
▪ Origin- incisive part of mandible
- Mylohyoid muscle- suspends tongue between mandibular bodies, important for induction of deglutition
41
37. The innervation of the tongue (motoric, sensoric, vegetative)
- Sympathetic
o Trigeminal- tactile, pain, thermal innervation for rostral 2/3
o Chorda tympani- mechanical and chemoreceptor innervation to tongue and taste fibres
o Glossopharyngeal- caudal 1/3 taste fibres
o Vagal- root of tongue
o Hypoglossal- tongue musculature, somatic motor
- Parasympathetic
o Mandibular ganglion
- Motoric
o Hypoglossal
42
38. The sense (taste) innervation of the tongue
- Chorda tympani- rostral 2/3 taste fibres
- Glossopharyngeal- caudal 1/3 taste fibres
43
39. Parts of the pharynx and its connections with neighbouring cavities (openings)
- Parts
o Nasopharynx- above soft palate
o Oropharynx- ventral compartment
o Laryngopharynx- caudal continuation
- Openings
o Paired chonae
o Isthmus of the fauces
o Entrance into the auditory tubes
o Entrance into the larynx
o Entrance into the oesophagus
44
40. The parts of the esophagus and the wall layers
Parts:
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Abdominal
Wall layers of the oesophagus:
1. Mucosa
● Epithelium
● Lamina propria
● Muscular layer of mucous membrane
2. Submucosa
3. Muscular layer
● Circular muscular layer
● Longitudinal muscular layer
4. Adventitia – in the cervical part (fibrous CT)
Serosa – in the thoracic and abdominal parts (double layer of SS EP)
45
41. Types of stomach and its classification in domestic mammals
- Simple stomach- one compartment
- Complex stomach- several compartments
- Glandular stomach- lined by glandular mucosa and simple columnar epithelium
- Composite stomach- area of glandular stomach covered by stratified squamous epithelium
- Species stomach types:
o Ca- simple, glandular
o Eq, Su- simple, composite
o Ru- complex, composite (rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum)
46
42. The major structure of the dog’s stomach Surfaces curvatures
Divisions of the stomach:
- Cardia
- Fundus
- Body
- Pyloric portion
o Canalis pyloricus
o Atrum pyloricum
Surfaces:
- Facies parietalis- against diaphragm and liver
- Fascies visceralis- against the caudal adjacent organs
Curvatures:
- Curvatura ventriculi major- convex, with the ventral border of the stomach
- Curvatura minor- concave, the dorsal border from cardia to pylorus
o Marked by incisura angularis
47
43. The structure of the rumen and reticulum
Rumen
- Extends from diaphragm to pelvic inlet
- Surfaces
o Parietal surface- adjacent to diaphragm, left lateral and ventral wall of abdomen
o Visceral surface- against liver, intestines, omasum, abomasum
Rumen is divided by several inflections – the pillars of the rumen:
● Ventral sac, uminal recessr
● Dorsal sac
● Cranial sac
● Caudodorsal blind sac
● Caudoventral blind sac
- Cranial part of dorsal sac forms cranial rumen sac called the atrium, it communicates with reticulum, food passes from rumen to reticulum or vice versa
- Division of rumen from reticulum is achieved by the ruminoreticular fold
Reticulum
- Closely related to rumen
- Smooth muscle of the ruminoreticular wall is arranged in two layers, outer thinner and inner thicker
- Ruminoreticular contractions mixes and redistributes stomach contents, plays role in regurgitation and re-mastication
48
44. The structure of the omasus + species difference and abomasus
Omasum
- Lies within intrathoracic part of abdomen, right of ruminoreticular compartment
- Shape differences in species:
o Cow – bilaterally flattened sphere
o Cap, ov – bean shaped
- Reticulo-omasal opening- allows communication with reticulum
- Omaso-abomasal opening- allows communication with abomasum
- Omasal groove- connects the two openings
Abomasum
- Corresponds to simple stomach of domestic mammals
- Divided into fundus, body, pylorus
- Lined by glandular mucosa
- Contains gastric glands proper and pyloric glands
49
45. The parts of the duodenum in domestic mammals. The bile and its excretory ways from liver to duodenum
Parts of duodenum:
- Cranial
- Cranial duodenal flexure
- Descending
- Transverse/caudal
- Caudal duodenal flexure
- Ascending
- Duodenojejunal flexure
Excretory ways from liver to duodenum:
- Bile capillaries unite to form interlobular ducts
- Interlobular ducts unite to form lobular ducts
- Extrahepatic bile ducts consist of hepatic ducts from the liver, cystic duct of the gall bladder, and bile duct of the duodenum
50
46. The pancreas partition and its excretory ducts
- Divided into 3 parts:
o Body/ corpus
o Right lobe/ Lobus dexter
o Left lobe/ Lobus sinister
- Pancreatic notch- where the portal vein passes in Ru
- Pancreatic duct: major duodenal papilla
o All species
- Accessory duct: minor duodenal papilla
o Not in Ru or Su
- Species differences:
o Ca, Ru portal vein notched
o Eq, Su portal vein perforated in pancreatic ring
o Ca pancreas is ‘V’ shaped with two limbs
51
47. The structure of the horse’s cecum
- Parts:
o Apex- blind-ended
o Body- curve tapering
o Base
- Ostium ileale- communicates with ileum, except dog
- Ostium caecoclicum- communicates with colon
- Taenia- visible bands on external surface in Eq
o Medial, lateral, dorsal, ventral
- Plica ileocaecalis- iliocaecal fold
- Haustra- caecal wall ruffled in rows of sacculations
o Eq 4 rows
52
48. The colon in the horse and cow Taenia turns and flexures
Divided into
- Ascending
- Transverse
- Descending
o Antimesenterical taenia
o Maesenterical taenia
Ru colon spiral shaped:
- Sigmoid flexure
- Centripetal turns
- Central flexure
- Centrifugal turns
Eq ascending colon arranged in U shaped loops:
- Right ventral colon
o Sternal flexure
- Left ventral colon
o Pelvic flexure
- Left dorsal colon
o Dorsal diaphragmatic flexure
- Right dorsal colon
53
49. The liver lobes in the dog, horse, cow and pig
- Lobes- divided by fissures
o Left
▪ Lateral
▪ Medial
o Right
▪ Medial
▪ Lateral
o Caudate
▪ Caudate process
▪ Papillary process
o Quadrate
- Lobe species differences:
o Ca all lobes, sub lobes and processes
o Su no papillary process
o Eq right lobe undivided, no papillary process
o Ru no fissures, left and right lobe undivided
54
50. The name of the liver ligaments, surfaces and margins of liver
- Ligaments
o Falciform
▪ Extends between liver, diaphragm and ventral body
▪ Includes v. Umbilicalis which become ligamentum teres hepatis after birth
o Hepatoduodenale
▪ From hepatic porta to duodenum and stomach
o Hepaticogastricum
▪ From hepatic porta to duodenum and stomach
▪ Contain left and right gastric artery
o Triangular sinistrum
▪ Extends from dorsal part of the liver to diaphragm
▪ Mechanical support
o Triangular dextrum
▪ Extends from dorsal part of the liver to diaphragm
▪ Mechanical support
o Coronarium
▪ Surrounds caudal vena cava during passage from liver to diaphragm
▪ Mechanical support
- Surfaces
o Facies diaphragmatica
o Fascies visceralis- facing towards abdominal organs
▪ Marked by impressions of stomach, duodenum, right kidney and intestines
- Margins
o Margo acutus- meeting of faces ventrolaterally
o Margo obtusus- meeting of faces dorsally
▪ Marked by impression of oesophagus
55
51. The structures formed with peritoneum (ligaments, mesenteriums, folds, excavations)
Peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity
- Mesentery- e.g. mesoduodenum, mesojejunum, mesosalpinx, mesovarium
o M Double layer of peritoneum that supports organs, nerves and blood vessels
o Anchors organs to the abdominal wall
- Peritoneal fold
o Part of the peritoneum that is raised from the abdominal wall by the underlying blood vessels and ducts
o Each fold forms a pouch-like peritoneal recess. Some peritoneal folds are called peritoneal ligaments when they connect an organ to the abdominal wall or to another organ
- Omentum
o Fat over the intestines for protection, composed of double layer of peritoneum
o Greater omentum
▪ Gastrophrenic ligament
▪ Gastrosplenic ligament
▪ Gastrocolic ligament
o Lesser omentum
▪ Hepatogastric ligament
▪ Hepatoduodenal ligament
56
52. The blood supply of the liver (vasa private and vasa publica, rete mirabile veno-venosum)
- Hepatic artery- nutritional supply of oxygenated blood
- Portal vein- functional supply of blood to extract metabolites
o Collects blood from stomach, pancreas, intestines, spleen
- Central veins- fuse into sublobular veins and empties deoxygenated blood into caudal vena cava
57
53. The morphology of the spleen (surfaces, extremities and margins, hilus)
Structure:
- Located in peritoneum (except Ru)
- Ligaments:
o Gastrosplenic- attaches to stomach
o Nephrosplenic- attaches to kidney in Eq
- Surfaces:
o Diaphragmatic
o Visceral- marked by hilus
- Shape in each species:
o Eq- falciform
o Su- tongue shaped
o Ca- boot shaped
o Small Ru- leaf shaped
o Cow- wide strap
Hilus- where vessels and nerves enter and leave the spleen
58
54. The small intestine morphology in domestic mammals
- Duodenum
o Parts:
▪ Cranial
▪ Cranial duodenal flexure
▪ Descending
▪ Transverse/caudal
▪ Caudal duodenal flexure
▪ Ascending
▪ Duodenojejunal flexure
o Duodenocolic fold- marks cranial border
o Hepatoduodenal ligament- connects to liver
- Jejunum
o Mesojejunum
- Ileum
o Plica ileocaecalis- iliocaecal fold
59
55. The lobes of the lung in the dog, cow, horse and pig
60
56. The external structure of the lungs (surfaces, margins, ends, impressions)
- Faces of the lungs
o Facies costalis
o Facies mediastinalis
o Facies diaphragmatica
- Margins of the lung
o Margo dorsalis seu obtusus- where the mediastinal and costal surfaces meet dorsally
o Margo ventralis seu acutus- where the mediastinal and costal surfaces meet ventrally, forms cardiac notch
o Margo basalis- where the diaphragmatic and costal surfaces meet
o Margo mediastinalis- where the diaphragmatic and mediastinal surfaces meet
- Notches of the lungs
o Incisura cardiaca- allows the heart to come into close contact with the lateral wall of the lungs
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57. The division pattern of the respiratory ways (arbor bronchalis, arbor alveolaris, acini pulmonales)
Respiratory passage ways:
- Principal bronchi
- Lobar bronchi
o Cranial lobar
o Middle lobar
o Caudal lobar
o Accessory lobar
- Segmental bronchi
- Subsegmental bronchi
- True and terminal bronchi
Sites of gaseous exchange within the lungs are:
- Respiratory bronchiole
o Secondary bronchioles
o Tertiary bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts
- Alveolar sacs
- Pulmonary alveoles
o Lined by type I and II pneumocytes
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58. The types of kidneys in domestic mammals
- Lobes
o Unilobular- single renal papilla
▪ Ca, Eq, small Ru
o Multilobulate- multiple renal papilla
▪ Su smooth, cow lobated surface
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59. The external structure of the kidney (surfaces, margins and ends, hilus)
- Shape in different species
o Ca, Ru bean shaped
o Cow irregular oval
o Su flat
o Eq right is heart shaped, left is triangular
- Surfaces
o Dorsal
o Ventral
- Borders
o Lateral
o Medial- indented to form hilus
- Poles
o Cranial
o Caudal
Hilus- where vessels and nerves enter and exit the kidney
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60. The blood supply of the kidney (rete mirabile arterio-arteriosum)
- A. Renialis (branch of abdominal aorta)
o Divides into interlobar arteries at the hilus > arcuate arteries > interlobular arteries
- Caudal vena cava
o Divides into renal vein > interlobar veins > arcuate veins > interlobular veins
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61. The parts of the ureter and its orifices, trigonum vesicae urinariae
- Connects urinary system with pelvic cavity
- Ends at dorsolateral surface of bladder in lateral ligament- openings create trigonum vesicae urinariae
- Parts
o Abdominal
o Pelvic- Enters broad uterine ligament in females, and mesoductus deferens in males
- Structure
o External adventitia
o Middle muscularis
o Internal mucosa
- Species differences
o Eq proximal ureter wall has glandulae uretericae
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62. The parts of the urinary bladder and the wall structure, ligaments of urinary bladder
- Divided into
o Cranial vertex/ apex
o Corpus vesicae/ body
o Cervix vesicae/ neck
- Ligaments
o Contain remnants of umbilical artery
o Lateral left and right ligament- border between pubovesical and vesicogenital excavation
o Median ligament- divides pubovesical excavation into left and right part
- Bladder wall layers
o Mucosa
o Submucosa
o Muscle
▪ Outer longitudinal
▪ Middle circular
▪ Inner longitudinal
o Covered in peritoneum- except caudal part of neck
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63. The parts of the epididymis and three parts of the spermatic chord (the inguinal canal construction and components of the spermatic chord)
- Epididymis divided into
o Head
▪ Attached to testicular capsule
▪ Receives efferent ducts of testis
o Body
▪ Formed by convoluted ducts
o Tail
▪ Continuation of epididymal duct
▪ Attaches to the testis caudally by the proper ligament of the testis
▪ Attaches to the vaginal process by the ligament of the tail of the epididymis
▪ Continues as the ductus deferens
- Deferent duct/spermatic cord parts
o Scrotal- direct continuation of duct/ tail of epididymis
o Inguinal- enters the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal
o Abdominal- forms loop within peritoneum fold, ampulla at terminal end
o Perforates the prostate gland to open in the proximal part of the urethra at the seminal hillock
o Eq, Ru the deferens duct is joined by the excretory duct
- Inguinal canal construction
o Deep inguinal ring- internal opening of inguinal canal
▪ Abdominal branch of internal oblique abdominal muscle
o Superficial inguinal ring- external opening of inguinal canal
▪ Medial branch of external oblique abdominal muscle
▪ Lateral branch of external oblique abdominal muscle
Contains vaginal process, including spermatic cord and cremaster muscle
Allows passage of external pudendal artery and vein, and genitofemoral nerve
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64. The external structure of the ovary in the domestic animals
Structure
- Medulla
o Loose, more vascular area in the centre
- Parenchymatous zone/cortex
o Dense shell
o Bounded by albugineous tunic below peritoneum
- Eq
o Structure of ovary is reversed, with the medulla being outside layer
o Parenchymatous zone reaches the ovary at the ovulation fossa
Surfaces:
- Medial
- Lateral
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65. The broad ligament of the uterus (parts and bursa ovarica walls)
- Uterine ligaments
o Broad- mesovarium suspends ovaries, mesosalpinx suspends uterine tubes and uterus
▪ Suspensory
● Ca, Su
▪ Proper
● Ca, Su
o Round- passes through inguinal canal, enclosed by vaginal process
▪ Dog
- Ovarian bursa- surrounds entire ovary, creating a small cavity made up of
o Mesovarium- suspends ovaries and forms cranial part of broad ligament
o Mesosalpinx- suspends uterine tubes and forms cranial part of broad ligament
o Mesometrium- suspends uterus
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66. The parts of the tuba uterine and the types of the uterus in domestic animals
Uterine tube- paired tubes receive and transport oocytes to uterus
- Tubes suspended by mesosalpinx
o Connects peritoneal cavity with uterine cavity
- Parts
o Infundibulum- receives oocyte after ovulation
o Fimbria- processes of infundibulum that facilitate oocyte movement
o Ampulla- location of fertilisation
o Isthmus- apex of the horn of the uterus, distal part of tube
o Uterine ostium- opening into uterine horn
- Types of uteruses
o Duplex- uterus consists of paired tubes which open separately into vagina
▪ Rodents
o Simplex- uterine tubes meet in uterus
● Simplex bicornis subseptus- separate horns
o Ca, Su, Ru
● Simplex bicornis nonseptus- no division between horns
o Eq
▪ Characterised by
● Cervix
● Body
● Paired horns
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67. The parts of the uterus and the structure of the wall in the uterus
- Parts
o Paired horns
o Body
o Cervix
- Layers
o Endometrium
o Myometrium
▪ External longitudinal layer
▪ Thicker inner circular layer
o Perimetrium
▪ Serous membrane covering uterus
- Uterine caruncles- attachment site of cotyledons
- Cotyledons- embryonic membrane during pregnancy
- Placentome- foetal side of attachment site
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68. Structure of the uterine cervix in domestic mammals
- Cervical canal- lumen of the cervix
o Formed by and occluded by mucosal folds
▪ Longitudinal in Eq and Ca
▪ Circular in Su
- Internal uterine ostium- cranial opening into uterus
- External uterine ostium- caudal opening into vagina
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69. The border between vagina and vestibule of the vagina, and the vulva morphology
Vagina
- Cranial part of copulatory organ
Vestibule of vagina
- Caudal part of copulatory organ
Suburethral diverticulum- ventral opening with urethra into vagina
External urethral orifice- border between vestibule and vagina
Vulva
- Formed by two labia meeting at dorsal and ventral commissures
- Parts
o Corpus
o Glans clitoris
▪ Lies within fossa clitoridis
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70. The parts of the male and female urethra and its orifice location
- Female
o Parts
▪ Mucous membrane
▪ Urethral muscle layer
o Passes obliquely through vagina wall, opens with external urethral opening between vagina and vestibule
o Species differences
▪ Eq short and wide
▪ Dog long, opens on elevation flanked by 2 grooves
▪ Cow, Su urethralis muscle encloses suburethral diverticulum which opens with urethra into vagina
- Male
o Parts
▪ Pelvic part
● Preprostatic portion- internal opening to seminal hillock
● Prostatic portion- joined by defferent and vesicular ducts, passes through prostate gland
▪ Penile part
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71. The structure of the testis (mesorchium, mesoductus deferens and mesofuniculus)
- Mesorchium
o Connects testes to abdominal wall
- Mesoductus deferens
o Encloses deferens duct
- Mesofuniculus
o Membrane between spermatic cord and wall of vaginal process
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72. The phases of the descendus testis and the types of abdominal hernias
Phases of testes descent:
- The testis originate at the gonadal primordium
- Phase 1
o Dependent on gubernaculum
o Gubernaculum increases in size dilating the inguinal canal
- Phase 2
o Gubernaculum regresses moving the testis to within the vaginal process
o Draws testes towards inguinal region
Types of hernia:
- Inguinal
o Intestine or omentum herniates into vaginal process
- Umbilical
o Intestine herniates into umbilical ring
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73. Morphology of penis
- Penis is composed of following divisions/subdivisions
o Root of penis
▪ Crura of the penis
▪ Unpaired bulb of penis
o Body of penis
▪ Cavernous body
▪ Spongy body
o Glans of penis
▪ Long distal part
▪ Expanded proximal part
▪ Bulbus glandis
▪ Os penis
● Ca
- Glans of penis carries external opening of urethra
o Except Ru, free urethral process prolongs the urethra beyond glans
- Muscles of penis
o Paired ischiocavernous muscle
o Bulbospongious muscle
o Paired retractor penis muscle
- Two types of penis:
o Fibroelastic type
▪ Ru, Su
o Musculocavernous type
▪ Eq, Ca
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74. The layers of scrotum and corresponding layers of abdominal wall
- External skin
- Fibromuscular subcutaneous layer
- Double-layered external spermatic fascia
- Cremaster muscle
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75. The blood vessels ending in the right atrium
- Cranial vena cava
- Caudal vena cava
- Coronary sinus
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76. The valves of the heart (number of cusps, chordae tendineae and mm. papillares)
Valves:
- Right atrioventricular valve- tricuspid
o Angular
o Parietal
o Septal
- Left atrioventricular valve- bicuspid/ mitral valve
o Parietal
o Septal
- Aortic valve- semilunar
- Pulmonary trunk valve- semilunar
Left papillary muscles:
- Subauricularis
- Subatrialis
Right papillary muscles:
- Anterior
- Posterior
- Septal
Chordae tendinae- fibrous heart strings connecting papillary muscles to valves
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77. The scheme of the pulmonary (lesser) circulation
- Blood enters right atrium
- Moves into right ventricle
- Pulmonary trunk and artery allows blood to be oxygenated at the lungs
- Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium
- Oxygenated blood in the left atrium
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78. Aortic arch in the dog, horse, pig and cow
83
79. Botall’s duct (ductus arteriosus), ductus venosus (ductus Aranti) and foramen ovale, the construction of the foetal blood circulation)
Ductus venosus:
- Foetal blood vessel connecting umbilical vein through the liver to caudal vena cava
- Protects the liver
- Blood flow regulated by sphincter mechanism (when closed, blood goes to liver)
Ductus arteriosus:
- Foetal blood vessel connecting the pulmonary trunk to descending aorta
- Protects lungs from having overflow of blood
Foramen Ovale:
- Opening that connects atria ventral branches of left and right vagal nerve:
- Protects developing lungs
- Prevents high pressure blood exiting right atria into pulmonary trunk over collapsed lung
- Septum secundum closes the foramen ovale at birth
Construction of foetal blood circulation:
- During gastrulation, cells of primary heart field are specified
- Time of differentiation determines first and second heart field
- Cardiac precursor cells differentiate and the two sides of the heart zip together to form a heart tube, creating a primitive inflow tract
- Heart is essentially upside down, early looping flips it
- Late looping divides atria, creating septum primum
- Left and right ventricle and aortic and pulmonary circulations are divided to give four chambers
- Mesenchymal cells give rise to valve tissue
- Neural crest cells separate outflow tract
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80. The visceral and parietal branches of the thoracic aorta
Parietal branches:
- A. phrenica cranialis (Eq)
- Aa. intercostales dorsales
Visceral branches:
- A. Bronchoesophageal
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81. The unpaired visceral blood vessels of the abdominal aorta organs supplied
- A. coelica
o Supplies pancreas, stomach
- A. Mesenterica cranialis
o Supplies pancreas, distal duodenum to cranial rectum
- A. Mesenterica caudalis
o Supplies distal duodenum to cranial rectum
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82. The major branches of a. coeliaca and supplied structures
- A. splenica
o Supplies spleen, stomach
- A. hepatica
o Supplies liver, stomach
- A. gastric sinister
o Supplies stomach
87
83. The paired visceral blood vessels of the abdominal aorta and supplied organ
- A. Suprarenalis
o Supplies adrenals
- A. Renalis
o Supplies kidneys
- A. Testicularis/ overica
o Supplies testes or ovaries
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84. The nerves of the brachial plexus and its function
Function- gives rise to the nerves that innervate the muscles and skin of the thoracic limb, parts of the shoulder, girdle musculature, and parts of the abdomen and thoracic wall
89
85. The nerves of the lumbosacral plexus and its function
Function- gives rise to the nerves that innervate the skin and muscle of the pelvic limb, and also the pelvis
90
86. Sensoric and motoric cranial nerves (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
91
87. Facial nerve (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
Facial nerve- Cranial Nerve 7
- Function
o Innervates stapes, eyelid muscles, lips to open mouth
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Internal acoustic meatus
o Facial canal
- General partition
o Major petrosal
o Stapedial
o Chorda tympani
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88. Glossopharyngeal nerve (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
Glossopharyngeal nerve- Cranial Nerve 9
- Function
o Innervates root of tongue, dilators of pharynx, parotid gland
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Carotid sinus
o Guttural pouch (Eq)
- General partition
o Pharyngeal
o Lingual
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89. Trigeminius nerve (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function)
Trigeminal nerve- Cranial Nerve 5
- Function
o Innervates masticatory muscles
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Round foramen
o Orbital fissure
- General partition
o Ophthalmic
o Maxillary
o Mandibular
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90. The general construction of sympathetic nervous system (nucleus, sympathetic trunk, main branches, plexuses and ganglions, prevertebral trunk)
95
91. The general construction of parasympathetic nervous system (parasympathetic nucleuses and ganglions of the 3th, 7th, 9th and 10th cranial nerves, nucleus intermediomedialis and nn. pelvini)
96
92. Nervus vagus morphology (nucleus, cranial cavity opening for main trunk, general partition and function
Vagus nerve- Cranial Nerve 10
- Function
o Parasympathetic nerve
- Type
o Mixed
- Nucleus
o Rhombencephalon
- Cranial cavity opening for main trunk
o Jugular foramen
- General partition
o Ventral branches of left and right vagal nerve form ventral vagal trunk
▪ Rami hepatici
▪ Rami gastrici parietales
o Dorsal branches of left and right vagal nerve form dorsal vagal trunk
▪ Rami coeliaci
▪ Rami gastrici viscerales
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93. The definition of the nervous segment and the spinal nerve construction and partition
Nervous segment- segmented ganglia giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature
Spinal nerve- dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord unite in the vertebral canal
Partition of spinal nerves:
Number of spinal nerves in each segment corresponds to the number of vertebrae
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94. The spinal chord (grey and white substance, types of neurons, parts of spinal chord, grooves of spinal chord, cerebrospinal fluid cavities morphology and junctions)
Grey matter- cell bodies and process of neurons and glial cells, butterfly or H shaped
White matter- myelinated ascending and descending nerve fibres, myelinated sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes which creates the white colour
Types of neurons in the spinal cord:
- Interneurons
- Efferent
Parts of spinal cord:
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Lumbar
- Sacral
- Caudal
Grooves of spinal cord:
- Dorsal
- Ventral
- Median fissure
Cerebrospinal fluid cavities:
- Morphology
o 2 lateral ventricles
o 3rd ventricle
o 4th ventricle
- Junctions
o Mesencephalic aqueduct
▪ Canal that joins the 3rd to the 4th ventricle
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95. The skeletal muscle general morphology, types and accessory muscles organs
- Morphology
o Muscle belly
o Tendons of origin
o Tendons of insertion
- Types
o Red- sarcoplasm contains less myofilaments so can store more myoglobin, appearing darker
o White- sarcoplasm contains more myofilaments so stores less myoglobin and appears pale
- Accessory muscle organs
o Fascia
o Bursae (synovial bursae)
o Tendon sheaths
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96. The diaphragm morphology, blood vessels and innervation
Diaphragm:
- Function
o Extends the thorax, depresses costal cartilage
- Innervation
o nn. phrenici
- Origin
o Xiphoid process, costal cartilage of ribs 7-12
- Insertion
o Central tendon of diaphragm
- Openings
o Oesophageal hiatus
▪ Oesophagus
▪ Vagal nerve
▪ Oesophageal vessels- dorsal and ventral vagal trunks
o Aortic hiatus
▪ Aorta ventral branches of left and right vagal nerve:
▪ Azygos vein
▪ Thoracic duct
o Caval foramen
▪ Caudal vena cava
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97. The horse’s stay apparatus (parts and function)
Passive stay- system of muscles, tendons and ligaments evolved to support and lock the limbs in order to conserve energy
Parts:
- Deep and superficial digital flexor tendon- long tendons insert into phalanges for stability
- Suspensory ligament- prevents fetlock overextension
- Stifle and tibiotarsal joint- cannot move independently of one another
- Proximal sesamoid bones and distal sesamoidean ligament- prevent overextension by suspensory apparatus
- Muscular adaptations- lack of muscular tissue so cannot contract or change length, and increased collagen content
o Vastus medius quadricep muscle- contracts slightly to allow mechanism but requires very little muscle exertion
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98. Morphology of the hoof (bones, soft tissues)
Bones:
- Distal part of middle phalanx
- Distal interpharyngeal joint
- Distal phalanx
- Lateral and medial hoof cartilage
- Distal sesamoid/ navicular
- Navicular bursa
Segments:
- Perioplic- band few mms distal to hairy skin
- Coronary- band distal to perioplic band
- Wall- internal segment visible as a white line on the Surface of the sole
Hoof wall divided into:
- Toe
- Sides/ quarters
- Heel
- Bars
Base/ distal surface divided into:
- Solear margin
- Sole- space between wall and frog
- Frog- shock absorbing structure
- Bulb of heel- cushion underlying frog
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99. Udder morphology
Small ruminant:
- 2 mammary complexes
o Each complex has a unit with a principal teat
Cow:
- 4 mammary complexes
o Each complex has a unit with a principal teat
- Suspended from inguinal region by suspensory apparatus
- Intermammary groove- division into right and left halves
Horse:
- 1 mammary complex
o 2 units opening on the teat with 2 separate openings
Blood supply:
- External pudendal artery- Cranial and caudal mammary artery branches
- External pudendal vein
Lymphatics:
- Iliofemoral and medial iliac lymph nodes
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100. General partition of brain
- Forebrain- Prosencephelon
o Telencephalon
o Diencephalon
- Midbrain- Mesencephalon
o Mesencephalon
- Hindbrain- Rhombencephelon
o Metencephalon
▪ Pons
▪ Cerebellum
o Myelencephalon
▪ Medulla oblongata
o layer of compact bone
o Medullary cavity
