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Praxis Exam > Anatomy/Neuroanatomy/Physiology > Flashcards

Anatomy/Neuroanatomy/Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Respiration

A
  • breathing (inhalation and exhalation)
  • the exchange of gas between an organism and its environment
  • supplies energy for speech
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2
Q

Inhalation

A
  • draws air into the lungs
  • brings oxygen to blood
  • when lungs expand, the pressure within the lungs is reduced and air moves into the lungs to equalize pressure in and outside of the lungs
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3
Q

Process of inhalation

A
  • chest and lungs expand
  • diaphragm lowers
  • air flows in through the nose and mouth
  • air goes down pharynx and between open VFs
  • air continues downward through trachea and bronchial tubes
  • air reaches lungs
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4
Q

Exhalation

A
  • helps get rid of mixed air and gases that result from respiratory metabolism
  • caused by muscle contraction to reduce the volume of the chest cavity
  • creates positive pressure within the lungs
  • speech occurs during exhalation
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5
Q

Framework of respiration

A
  • lungs
  • bronchi
  • trachea
  • spinal column
  • sternum
  • rib cage
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6
Q

Lungs

A
  • soft, spongy, porous, elastic, pink structures located in the thoracic cavity where the exchange of gas in respiration takes place
  • right lung is shorter, broader, and bigger
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7
Q

Bronchi

A
  • tubes composed of cartilaginous rings that extend from the lungs upward to the trachea
  • subdivide into bronchioles (become progressively less cartilaginous and more muscular)
  • communicate with the alveolar ducts that open into tiny air sacs in the lungs
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8
Q

Trachea

A
  • a tube formed by ~20 cartilaginous rings (incomplete in back where connected to esophagus) connected to the cricoid cartilage and the larynx
  • functions as a passageway for air
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9
Q

Spinal Column

A

consists of 32-33 individual vertebrae divided into 5 segments

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10
Q

5 segments of spinal column

A
  • 7 cervical
  • 12 thoracic (attached to ribs)
  • 5 lumbar
  • 5 sacral
  • 3-4 coccygeal (form coccyx)
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11
Q

Sternum

A

breastbone; made up of 3 parts (manubrium, body/corpus, xiphoid process)

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12
Q

Rib cage

A

composed of 12 pairs of ribs, sternum, and 12 thoracic vertebrae

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13
Q

Muscles of respiration

A
  • thoracic muscles of inspiration

- abdominal muscles of expiration

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14
Q

Thoracic muscles of inspiration

A
  • Diaphragm
  • External intercostal muscles
  • Serratus posterior superior
  • Levator costarum brevis
  • Levator costarum longis
  • Sternoclediomastoid
  • Trapezius
  • Pectoralis major
  • Pectoralis minor
  • Serratus anterior
  • Levator scapulae
  • Rhomboideus major
  • Rhomboideus minor
  • Internal intercostal
  • Innermost intercostal
  • Transversus thoracis
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15
Q

Diaphragm

A
  • primary muscle of inspiration

- thick, dome-shaped muscle that separates the abdomen and thorax (innervates C3-C5)

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16
Q

External intercostal muscles

A
  • primary muscle of inspiration
  • 11 pairs of muscles between the ribs that raise the ribs up and out to increase diameter of the thoracic cavity for inhalation (innervates T2-T11)
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17
Q

Internal intercostal

A
  • primary muscle of inspiration

- depresses ribs 1-11 (innervates T2-T11)

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18
Q

Abdominal muscles of expiration

A
  • Latissimus dorsi
  • Rectus abdominis
  • Transversus abdominis
  • Internal oblique abdominis
  • Quadratis lumborum
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19
Q

Larynx

A
  • the voice box and home of the VFs
  • musculo-cartilaginous structure that lies at the top of the trachea
  • valving mechanism
  • serves as protection for the trachea while swallowing
  • aids cough reflex
  • closes VFs to build subglottic pressure
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20
Q

Laryngeal structures

A
  • Hyoid bone
  • Epiglottis
  • Thyroid cartilage
  • Cricoid cartilage
  • Arytenoid cartilages
  • Corniculate cartilages
  • Cuneiform cartilages
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21
Q

Hyoid bone

A
  • superior boundary of the phonatory system
  • serves as a point of attachment for many tongue muscles
  • made up of corpus and 2 greater cornua and 2 lesser cornua
  • doesn’t articulate with bones
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22
Q

Epiglottis

A
  • protective, leaf-like piece of cartilage

- drops to cover the larynx during swallowing

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23
Q

Thyroid cartilage

A
  • largest cartilage
  • protects the larynx
  • formed by two plates fused at midline (thyroid notch)
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24
Q

Cricoid cartilage

A
  • completely surrounds the trachea

- often seen as the uppermost tracheal ring

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25
Q

Arytenoid cartilages

A

-small, pyramid shaped cartilages connected to the cricoid cartilage through the cricoarytenoid joint, which permits sliding and circular movements

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26
Q

Corniculate cartilages

A
  • small, cone-shaped cartilages that sit on the apex of the arytenoids
  • assist in reducing laryngeal opening when a person is swallowing
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27
Q

Cuneiform cartilages

A
  • stiffen/tense the aryepiglottic folds

- located under the mucous membrane covering the aryepiglottic folds

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28
Q

Laryngeal muscles

A
  • intrinsic

- extrinsic

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29
Q

Purpose of intrinsic laryngeal muscles

A
  • primarily responsible for controlling sound production
  • major functions include opening/closing/tensing/relaxing VFs
  • both attachments are within the larynx
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30
Q

Posterior cricoarytenoid

A
  • abducts VFs
  • innervates CN X (vagus)
  • recurrent laryngeal nerve branch
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31
Q

Lateral cricoarynteoid

A
  • adducts VFs
  • increases medial compression
  • innervates CN X (vagus)
  • recurrent laryngeal nerve branch
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32
Q

Transverse arytenoid

A
  • adducts VFs
  • innervates CN X (vagus)
  • recurrent laryngeal nerve branch
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33
Q

Oblique arytenoid

A
  • pulls apex of arytenoids in medial direction
  • innervates CN X (vagus)
  • recurrent laryngeal nerve branch
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34
Q

Thyroarytenoid

A
  • tenses VFs
  • the internal thyroarytenoid (vocalis muscle/VFs) is the primary portion of the thyroarytenoid muscle, which vibrates and produces sound
  • innervates CN X (vagus)
  • recurrent laryngeal nerve branch
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35
Q

Cricothyroid

A
  • lengthens and tenses VFs
  • made up of pars recta and pars oblique
  • innervates CN X (vagus)
  • external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve branch
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36
Q

Intrinsic laryngeal muscles

A
  • Posterior cricoarytenoid
  • Lateral cricoarytenoid
  • Transverse arytenoid
  • Oblique arytenoid
  • Thyroarytenoid
  • Cricothyroid
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37
Q

Purpose of Extrinsic laryngeal muscles

A
  • elavates or depresses larynx
  • support larynx and fix its position by elevating or depressing the laryngeal structure
  • only one attachment is within the larynx
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38
Q

Extrinsic laryngeal muscles (elevators)

A
  • *suprahyoid muscles
  • Digastric
  • Geniohyoid
  • Mylohyoid
  • Stylohyoid
  • Hyoglossus
  • Genioglossus
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39
Q

Digastric

A

innervates CN V (trigeminal) and CN VII (facial)

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40
Q

Geniohyoid

A

innervates CN XII (hypoglossal) and C1

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41
Q

Mylohyoid

A

innervates CN V (trigeminal)

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42
Q

Stylohyoid

A

innervates CN VII (facial)

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43
Q

Hyoglossus

A

innervates CN XII (hypoglossal)

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44
Q

Genioglossus

A

innervates CN XII (hypoglossal)

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45
Q

Extrinsic laryngeal muscles (depressors)

A
  • *infrahyoid muscles
  • Thyrohyoid
  • Omohyoid
  • Sternothyroid
  • Sternohyoid
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46
Q

Thyrohyoid

A

innervates CN XII (hypoglossal) and C1

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47
Q

Omohyoid

A

innervates C1-C3

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48
Q

Sternothyroid

A

innervates C1-C3

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49
Q

Sternohyoid

A

innervates C1-C3

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50
Q

Vocal folds

A
  • vibrate to produce sound

- composed of epithelium (outer), lamina propria (middle), and vocalis muscle (inner)

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51
Q

Aryepiglottic folds

A
  • separate the laryngeal vestibule from the pharynx and help preserve the airway
  • composed of a ring of connective tissue and muscle extending from the tips of the arytenoids to the larynx
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52
Q

False VFs

A
  • vibrate only at very low fundamental frequencies and usually not during typical phonation
  • compress during activities of coughing and lifting heavy items
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53
Q

Myoelastic-Aerodynamic Theory

A

the VFs vibrate because of the forces of pressure of air and the elasticity of the VFs

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54
Q

Process of Myoelastic-Aerodynamic Theory

A
  • air flows out of lungs and is temporarily stopped by closed VFs
  • increase in subglottic pressure
  • blows VFs apart
  • VFs sent into vibration
  • air moves with increase velocity through glottal opening
  • pressure between edges of VFs decreases
  • VFs sucked back together
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55
Q

Bernoulli Effect

A
  • caused by the increased speed of air passing between the VFs
  • the sucking motion of the VFs toward one another
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56
Q

Process of Bernoulli Effect

A
  • air flows out of lungs and is temporarily stopped by closed VFs
  • increase in subglottic pressure
  • blows VFs apart
  • VFs sent into vibration
  • cycle of opening and closing VFs
  • repeated more than 100x/sec during vocalization
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57
Q

Mucosal Wave Action

A
  • critical to vibration of VFs

- may be impacted by abnormal growths

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58
Q

Process of Mucosal Wave Action

A
  • the cover and the transition over the vocalis muscle slide and produce a wave
  • wave travels across the superior surface of the VF
  • wave dissipates before reaching inner surface of thyroid cartilage
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59
Q

Cortical areas

A
  • primary motor cortex
  • Broca’s area
  • somatosensory cortex
  • supplementary motor cortex
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60
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • regulates motor movement

- key to the coordination of laryngeal muscles for phonation and the effective functioning of other speech systems

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61
Q

Cranial Nerves involved with vocal mechanism

A
  • CN VII (facial); innervates posterior belly of digastric muscle
  • CN X (vagus); innervates larynx
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62
Q

Primary branches of Vagus Nerve

A
  • superior laryngeal nerve

- recurrent laryngeal nerve

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63
Q

Superior laryngeal nerve

A
  • internal branch provides all sensory information to the larynx
  • external branch supplies motor innervation solely to the cricothyroid muscle
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64
Q

Recurrent laryngeal nerve

A
  • supplies all motor innervation to the interaryenoid, posterior cricoarytenoid, thyroarytenoid, and lateral cricoarytenoid
  • supplies all sensory information below the VFs
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65
Q

Resonation

A
  • modification of laryngeal tone by selective dampening or enhancement of specific frequencies
  • primary resonators include pharynx, nasal cavity, and oral cavity
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66
Q

Pharynx

A
  • throat
  • part of the upper airway, located superiorly and posteriorly to the larynx
  • size and shape of the pharynx are modified by the position of the tongue (forward vs. back) and vertical position of the larynx (high vs. low)
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67
Q

Nasal cavity

A

produces nasals by relaxation and lowering of soft palate/velum, which couples the nasal and oral cavities

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68
Q

Velum

A
  • raising and retracting of velum during productions of sounds helps make contact with posterior pharyngeal wall and separates the oral and nasal cavity
  • elevated and retracted for production of all other oral sounds in English
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69
Q

Oral cavity

A

primary resonating structure for English sounds (besides nasals)

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70
Q

Source-Filter Theory

A
  • depicts the vocal tract as a series of linked tubes (pharnx, nasal cavity, oral cavity) providing the variable resonating cavity to produce speech
  • energy from vibrating VFs (source) is modified by the resonance characteristics of the vocal tract (filter)
  • changes in the configuration and shape determine the sound
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71
Q

Articulation

A
  • the movement of speech structures to produce speech sounds
  • primary articulatory structures include the pharynx, soft palate, hard palate, mandible, teeth, tongue, lips, and cheeks
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72
Q

Segments of Pharynx

A
  • laryngopharynx
  • oropharynx
  • nasopharynx
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73
Q

Laryngopharynx

A

begins immediately superior to the larynx and ends at base of tongue

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74
Q

Oropharynx

A

extends up to the soft palate

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75
Q

Nasopharynx

A

ends where the two nasal cavities begin

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76
Q

Muscles of the pharynx

A
  • Salpingopharyngeus
  • Stylopharyngeus
  • Superior pharyngeal constrictor
  • Middle pharyngeal constrictor
  • Inferior pharyngeal constrictor, cricopharyngeus
  • Inferior pharyngeal constrictor, thyropharyngeus
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77
Q

Salpingopharyngeus

A
  • elevates lateral pharyngeal wall

- innervates CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)

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78
Q

Stylopharyngeus

A
  • elevates and opens pharynx

- innervates CN IX (glossopharyngeal)

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79
Q

Superior pharyngeal constrictor

A
  • constricts pharynx diameter
  • pulls pharyngeal wall forward
  • innervates CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)
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80
Q

Middle pharyngeal constrictor

A
  • narrows diameter of pharynx

- innervates CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)

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81
Q

Inferior pharyngeal constrictor, cricopharyngeus

A
  • constricts superior orifice of esophagus

- innervates CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)

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82
Q

Inferior pharyngeal constrictor, thyropharyngeus

A
  • reduced diameter of lower pharynx

- innervates CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)

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83
Q

Soft palate

A
  • velum
  • flexible muscular structure at the juncture of the oropharynx and the nasopharynx
  • can be elevated or depressed
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84
Q

Muscles of soft palate

A
  • Levator veli palatini
  • Tensor veli palatini
  • Platoglossus
  • Palatopharyngeus
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85
Q

Levator veli palatini

A
  • primary elevator of the velum

- innervates CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)

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86
Q

Tensor veli palatini

A
  • tenses velum
  • dilates Eustachian tube
  • innervates CN V (trigeminal)
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87
Q

Platoglossus

A
  • elevates and depresses velum

- CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)

88
Q

Palatopharyngeus

A
  • narrows pharyngeal cavity
  • lowers velum
  • elevates larynx
  • innervates CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory)
89
Q

Uvula

A

small, cone-shaped structure at the tip of the velum

90
Q

Velopharyngeal closure

A

occurs when soft palate is raised and retracted and the muscles of the pharynx move inward to meet the muscles of the soft palate, causing a sphincter-like action and nasal port closure

91
Q

Hard palate

A
  • bony, hard palate that serves as the roof of the mouth and the floor of the nose
  • part of the maxillae + maxillary bones
92
Q

Parts of maxillary bones

A
  • premaxilla
  • palatine process
  • alveolar process
93
Q

Premaxilla

A

front portion housing the four upper front teeth (incisors)

94
Q

Palatine process

A
  • consists of two pieces of bone that grow and fuse at midline in utero
  • failure of fusion = cleft palate
95
Q

Alveolar process

A

outer edges of maxillary bone housing the molar, bicuspid, and cuspid teeth

96
Q

Mandible

A
  • lower jaw
  • houses the lower teeth and forms the floor of the mouth
  • formed by fusion of two bones, but considered to be one bone in adults
  • alveolar arch is the part of the mandible that houses the teeth
  • mandible is attached to the temporal bone of the skull by the temporomandibular joint
  • muscles of the mandible open and close the mouth and aid in chewing food and can be categorized as elevators or depressors
97
Q

Muscles of mandible (elevators)

A
  • masseter
  • temporalis
  • medial (internal) pterygoid
  • lateral (external) pterygoid
  • innervates CN V (trigeminal)
98
Q

Muscles of mandible (depressors)

A
  • anterior belly of digastric (CN V - trigeminal)
  • posterior belly of digastric (CN VII - facial)
  • geniogyoid (CN VII - facial)
  • mylohyoid (CN V - trigeminal)
99
Q

Teeth

A
  • lower dental arch is part of mandible
  • upper dental arch is part of maxillary bone
  • primary function is mastication, but also help produce speech sounds
  • babies have 20 temporary teeth
  • adults have 32 teeth (8 incisors, 4 canine, 8 premolar, and 12 molar)
100
Q

Tongue

A

important in eating and speech production

101
Q

Parts of tongue

A
  • tip
  • blade
  • dorsum
  • root
  • lingual frenulum
102
Q

Intrinsic muscles of tongue

A
  • superior longitudinal muscle
  • inferior longitudinal muscle
  • transverse muscles
  • vertical muscles
103
Q

Extrinsic muscles of tongue

A
  • genioglossus
  • styloglossus
  • hyoglossus
  • chondroglossus
  • palatoglossus
104
Q

Lips

A

primary muscle is orbicularis oris

105
Q

Cheeks

A

primary muscle is buccinator

106
Q

Facial muscles

A
  • mentalis
  • platysma
  • risorius
  • buccinator
  • depressor labii inferioris
  • depressor anguli oris
  • zygomatic minor
  • zygomatic major
  • orbicularis oris inferioris and superioris
  • levator anguli oris
  • levator labii superioris
  • levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
107
Q

Glial cells/Neurologia

A
  • cells of the CNS
  • do not transmit nerve impulses
  • mainly support and protect the nerve cells
108
Q

Schwann Cells

A

cells of the PNS

109
Q

Satellite Cells

A

cells of the PNS

110
Q

Neurons

A
  • most important type of nerve cells
  • receive, process, and transmit information
  • made up of nerve fibers and soma/cell body
111
Q

Nucleus

A
  • core of soma

- covered in membrane

112
Q

Dendrites

A
  • short fibers extending from soma

- receive neural impulses from axons of other cells and transmit impulses to cell body

113
Q

Axons

A
  • long fibers extending from soma
  • wrapped in myelin sheath (facilitates impulse transfer)
  • have terminal/end buttons at the tip that make contact/sit close to the dendrites of other neurons
  • send out impulses generated within the neuron
114
Q

Nervous system

A

an organization of nerves according to specific spatial, structural, and functional principles

115
Q

Synapses

A
  • junctures between neurons where communication takes place
  • consists of the terminal button of one neuron, the receptive site of another neuron, and the synaptic cleft/space between the two neurons
116
Q

Neural transmission

A

a chemical process of information exchange at the level of the synapse

117
Q

Neurotransmitter

A
  • a chemical contained within the terminal buttons that helps make contact between two cells by diffusing itself across the synaptic cleft
  • becomes bound to receptors in the postsynaptic membrane
  • may cause the inhibition/excitation of the next neuron
  • dopamine and acetylcholine are the two most important neurotransmitters in the motor system
118
Q

Sensory/Afferent neurons

A

cranial nerves that carry sensory impulses from the peripheral sense organs toward the brain

119
Q

Motor/Efferent Neurons

A
  • cranial nerves that transmit impulses away from CNS

- cause glandular secretions/muscular contractions

120
Q

Interneurons

A
  • most common type of neuron in the nervous system
  • links neurons with other neurons
  • plays an important role in controlling movement
121
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A
  • a collection of nerves outside the skull and spinal column that carry sensory impulses originating in the peripheral sense organs to the brain, and motor impulses originating in the brain to the glands and muscles of the body
  • contains 3 types of nerves (cranial, spinal, and autonomic)
122
Q

Cranial nerves

A
  • emerge from the brainstem and are attached to the base of the brain
  • 12 pairs
  • part of the lower motor system
  • receive much of their innervations from the corticobulbar tract of the pyramidal system
  • exit through the holes in the base of the skull at different levels of the brainstem and top portion of the spinal cord
  • numbered for vertical order of which they exit the skull
123
Q

Acronym for cranial nerves + sensory/motor

A

Oh Once One Takes The Anatomy Final Very Good Vacations Are Heavenly

Olfactory, Optic, Oculometer, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal

Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most

124
Q

Cranial nerves associated with speech, language, and hearing

A

CN V, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII

125
Q

Trigeminal Nerve (CN V)

A
  • sensory fibers: ophthalmic branch, maxillary branch, mandibular branch
  • motor fibers: jaw muscles
126
Q

Ophthalmic branch

A

sensory branches to nose, eyes, and forehead

127
Q

Maxillary branch

A

sensory branches to upper lip, maxilla, upper cheek area, upper teeth, maxillary sinus and palate

128
Q

Mandibular branch

A

sensory branches to mandible, lower teeth, lower lip, tongue, part of the cheek, and part of external ear

129
Q

Damage to Trigeminal Nerve

A
  • inability to close mouth
  • difficulty chewing
  • trigeminal neuroglia
130
Q

Facial Nerve (CN VII)

A
  • sensory fibers: taste sensation on anterior 2/3 of tongue

- motor fibers: innervate muscles important to facial expression and speech

131
Q

Damage to Facial Nerve

A

mask-like appearance with minimum to no facial expression

132
Q

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII)

A
  • vestibular branch

- acoustic branch

133
Q

Vestibular branch

A

primarily responsible for maintenance of equilibrium/balance

134
Q

Acoustic branch

A

transmits sensory information from the cochlea of the inner ear to primary auditory cortex in brain (where it is interpreted)

135
Q

Damage to Vestibulocochlear Nerve

A
  • hearing loss

- balance difficulties

136
Q

Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX)

A
  • sensory: processing taste sensation from posterior 1/3 of tongue and providing general sensation for tympanic cavity, ear canal, Eustachian tube, faucial pillars, tonsils, soft palate, and pharynx
  • motor: innervate stylopharyngus and upper pharyngeal constrictor muscles
137
Q

Damage to Glossopharyngeal Nerve

A
  • difficulty swallowing
  • unilateral loss of the gag reflex
  • loss of taste/sensation from posterior 1/3 of tongue
138
Q

Vagus Nerve (CN X)

A
  • sensory: convey information from digestive system, heart, trachea, pharynx, and lungs
  • motor: supply digestive system, heart, and lungs
  • recurrent laryngeal nerve
  • pharyngeal branch
139
Q

Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve

A
  • regulates intrinsic muscles of larynx (excluding cricothyroid)
  • damage may result in total/partial paralysis of VFs
140
Q

Pharyngeal Branch

A

supplies pharyngeal constrictors and all the muscles of the velum (excluding tensor tympani)

141
Q

Damage to Vagus Nerve

A
  • difficulty swallowing
  • paralysis of the velum
  • voice problems
142
Q

Accessory Nerve (CN XI)

A
  • supplies the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles, which assist in head and shoulder movements
  • cranial fibers innervate the uvula and levator veli palatini muscles of the soft palate
143
Q

Damage to Accessory Nerve

A
  • neck weakness
  • paralysis of sternoclediomastoid
  • inability to turn head
  • inability to shrug shoulders or raise arm above shoulder level
144
Q

Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII)

A
  • runs under tongue
  • supplies three extrinsic tongue muscles (styloglossus, hyloglossus, and genioglossus)
  • supplies all intrinsic muscles of the tongue
145
Q

Damage to Hypoglossal Nerve

A
  • tongue paralysis
  • diminished intelligibility
  • swallowing problems
146
Q

Purpose of Spinal Nerves

A
  • controls various bodily activities
  • can be motor, sensory, or mixed
  • transmit information from CNS to the muscles and carry sensory information from peripheral receptors to the CNS
  • 31 pairs attached to spinal cord through two roots
  • pairs divided into segments named for the region of the spinal cord to which they are attached
147
Q

Spinal Nerves

A
  • 8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves (C1-C8)
  • 12 pairs of thoracic spinal nerves (T1-T12)
  • 5 pairs of lumbar spinal nerves (L1-L5)
  • 5 pairs of sacral spinal nerves (S1-S5)
  • 1 pair of coccygeal spinal nerves (Co1)
148
Q

Spinal Cord structures

A
  • conus medullaris
  • cauda medullaris
  • filum terminale
149
Q

Conus medullaris

A

where spinal cords ends at the L1 vertebra level

150
Q

Cauda medullaris

A

lowermost nerves

151
Q

Filum terminale

A

where there are no spinal cord segments

152
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A
  • generally viewed as part of PNS
  • controls and regulates internal environment of our bodies with two branches that supply the body’s smooth muscles and various glands that secrete hormones
  • does not have a direct effect on speech, language, or hearing
153
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A
  • mobilizes the body for “fight or flight” situations
  • activation accelerates the heart rate, dilates the pupils, raises blood pressure and increases blood flow to the peripheral body structures causing a feeling of arousal
  • people who stutter may experience increased dysfluency with activation of the sympathetic nervous system
154
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A
  • brings body back to state of relaxation
  • lowers blood pressure
  • slows heart rate
  • increases activity within stomach and generally relaxes the body, causing a more relaxed and calm feeling
155
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

A
  • acts as motor command center for planning, originating, and carrying out transmission of messages
  • composed of spinal cord and brain
  • enclosed within vertebral column and cranial structure
  • key structures of brain include brainstem, reticular activating system, diencephalon, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cerebrum
  • other key structures include pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems, connecting fibers within brain, cerebral ventricles, protective layers of brain, and structures that provide cerebral blood supply
156
Q

Brain

A
  • acts as central station that coordinates activity, integrates information and issues commands
  • most important structure in the body for language, speech, and hearing
157
Q

Brainstem

A
  • oldest part of brain
  • connects spinal cord and brain via diencephalon
  • serves as bridge between cerebellum and all other CNS structures
158
Q

Internal makeup of brainstem

A
  • longitudinal fiber tracts
  • cranial nerve nuclei
  • reticular formation
159
Q

Key structures of brainstem

A
  • midbrain
  • pons
  • medulla
160
Q

Midbrain

A
  • narrow structure that connects brainstem and cerebellum
  • substantia nigra runs the vertical length of the midbrain and controls many motor and sensory functions
  • postural reflexes
  • visual reflexes
  • eye movements
  • head movements
161
Q

Pons

A
  • round, bulging structure that bridges the two halves of the cerebellum
  • connects cerebellum and various cerebral structures through the inferior and middle peduncles
  • transmits information relative to movement from the cerebral hemispheres to the cerebellum
  • contains many descending motor fibers and is involved with balance and hearing
  • houses the nuclei for trigeminal and facial nerves
  • important for speech production
162
Q

Medulla

A
  • contains fibers that originate in the cerebellum and cerebrum and move downward to form the spinal cord
  • includes several centers that control vital, automatic bodily functions (breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure)
  • houses cranial nerve nuclei for CN VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII
  • contains nerve fibers that carry commands from the motor center of the brain to various muscles contralaterally
  • important for speech production
163
Q

Reticular Activating System

A
  • a structure within the midbrain, brainstem, and upper portion of the spinal cord
  • integrates motor impulses flowing out of the brain with sensory impulses flowing into it
  • plays a role in the execution of motor activity
  • primary mechanism of attention and consciousness
164
Q

Diencephalon

A
  • located above midbrain and between brainstem and cerebral hemispheres
  • composed of third ventricle, thalamus, and hypothalamus
165
Q

Third ventricle

A

tall and narrow space filled with cerebrospinal fluid

166
Q

Thalamus

A
  • largest structure in diencephalon that regulates sensory information to the brain and relays sensory impulses to various portions of the cerebral cortex
  • critical for maintenance of consciousness and alertness
167
Q

Hypothalamus

A

helps integrate the actions of the autonomic nervous system and controls emotions

168
Q

Basal ganglia

A
  • structures primarily composed of gray matter that are found deep within the brain
  • highly complex system of neural pathways that have connections with many subcortical and cortical areas that receive input from the frontal lobe and relay information back to the higher centers of the brain via the thalamus
  • composed of corpus striatum
  • part of extrapyramidal system
169
Q

Damage to basal ganglia

A
  • unusual body postures
  • dysarthria
  • changes in body tone
  • involuntary/uncontrolled movements
170
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • consists of two hemispheres
  • primary fiber bundles serve as connections between brainstem and cerebellum
  • afferent fibers mediate sensorimotor information to the cerebellum
  • efferent fibers transmit information from cerebellum to the brainstem
  • receives neural impulses from other brain centers and helps coordinate and regulate those impulses
  • regulates equilibrium, body posture, and coordinates fine motor movements
171
Q

Damage to cerebellum

A
  • neurological disorder
  • abnormal gait
  • disturbed balance
  • ataxic dysarthria
  • other communication disorders
172
Q

Cerebrum

A
  • complex structure of intricate neural connections with gray cells on top
  • includes topmost portion of brain and arranged in 6 layers
  • gyri: ridges
  • sulcus: shallow valleys
  • fissures: deeper valleys
  • longitudinal fissure
  • Fissure of Rolando/central sulcus
  • Sylvian fissure/lateral cerebral fissure
173
Q

Longitudinal fissure

A

divides left and right hemispheres

174
Q

Fissure of Rolando/central sulcus

A

divides anterior and posterior half of the brain

175
Q

Sylvian fissure/lateral cerebral fissure

A

starts at the inferior portion of the frontal lobe and moves laterally and upward

176
Q

Frontal lobe

A
  • anterior portion of cerebrum
  • attributes to function of deliberate plans and intentions that dictate a person’s conscious behavior
  • contains critical areas for speech production (primary motor cortex, supplementary motor cortex, and Broca’s area)
177
Q

Primary motor cortex

A
  • located on the precentral gyrus
  • contralaterally controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles through the pyramidal system and modified by the extrapyramidal system
178
Q

Supplementary motor cortex

A
  • involved in motor planning of speech

- plays secondary role in regulating muscle movements

179
Q

Broca’s area

A
  • controls lip, tongue, jaw, and laryngeal movements

- highly involved in speech production

180
Q

Parietal lobe

A
  • located on upper sides of cerebrum
  • primary somatic sensory area
  • integrates somesthetic sensations (pain, pressure, temperature, and touch)
  • contains postcentral gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, and angular gyrus
181
Q

Postcentral gyrus

A
  • sensory cortex/sensory strip

- primary sensory area that integrates and controls somesthetic sensory impulses

182
Q

Supramarginal gyrus

A
  • critical for speech and language

- damage may result in conduction aphasia and agraphia

183
Q

Angular gyrus

A
  • critical for speech and language

- damage may result in difficulties in writing, reading, naming, and transcortical sensory aphasia

184
Q

Occipital lobe

A
  • located behind parietal lobe

- primary visual cortex

185
Q

Temporal lobe

A
  • makes up lower 1/3 of cerebrum
  • composed of 3 major gyri (superior/upper temporal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus, inferior/lower temporal gyrus)
  • includes Heschl’s gyri and Wernicke’s area
186
Q

Heschl’s gyri

A
  • critical for speech and hearing
  • composed of primary auditory cortex and auditory association cortex
  • primary auditory cortex receives sound stimuli from the acoustic nerve bilaterally
  • auditory association area synthesizes the information to be recognized as whole units
187
Q

Wernicke’s area

A
  • critical to the comprehension of written and spoken language
  • damage may result in fluent but meaningless speech and difficulties with comprehension
188
Q

Pyramidal system

A
  • direct motor activation pathway that is primarily responsible for facilitating (fine) voluntary muscle movement
  • composed of corticospinal tract and corticobulbar tract
189
Q

Corticospinal tract

A
  • has nerve fibers that descend from the motor cortex of each hemisphere and continue to course vertically through the midbrain and pons to communicate with spinal nerve at different levels
  • exits the vertebrae foramina through the spinal column to innervate the muscles of the trunk and limbs contralaterally
190
Q

Corticobulbar tract

A
  • critical to speech production
  • control all voluntary movements of the speech muscles
  • originate in the motor cortex and course downward along the corticospinal tract and terminate in the brainstem
  • innervate muscles of the larynx, pharynx, soft palate, tongue, face, and lips
191
Q

Lower motor neurons

A
  • motor neurons in the spinal and cranial nerves
  • part of the peripheral nervous system
  • activity eventually results in muscular movement
192
Q

Upper motor neurons

A
  • motor fibers within central nervous system
  • descending motor fibers
  • include pathways of pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems
193
Q

Extrapyramidal system

A
  • transmits impulses that control the postural support needed by fine motor movements
  • composed of different subcortical nuclei
  • indirect activation system
  • activity begins in cerebral cortex and ultimately influences lower motor neurons
  • helps maintain pressure, tone, and regulate movements resulting from lower motor neuron activity
194
Q

Damage to extrapyramidal system

A

motor disturbances (involuntary movement disorders)

195
Q

Connecting fibers to the brain

A
  • keeps information flowing throughout the brain
  • projection fibers
  • association fibers
  • commissural fibers
196
Q

Projection fibers

A
  • create connections between the cortex and subcortical structures
  • originate primarily in the premotor and primary motor areas in the frontal lobe
  • form upper motor neuron system of the pyramidal tract (direct activation pathway for voluntary motor movements)
  • afferent projection fibers
  • efferent projection fibers
197
Q

Afferent projection fibers

A

relay sensory information from peripheral sense organs to the brain

198
Q

Efferent projection fibers

A

relay motor commands to the glands and muscles

199
Q

Association fibers

A
  • connect areas within a hemisphere to maintain communication
  • arcuate fasiculus
200
Q

Arcuate fasiculus

A

most important bundle of superior longitudinal fibers that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s area

201
Q

Commissural fibers

A
  • interhemispheric connectors

- corpus callosum is most important and connects the two hemispheres

202
Q

Cerebral ventricles

A
  • a system of cavities deep within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which is produced by the choroid plexus and circulates throughout the nervous system to nourish neural tissues, remove waste, cushion the brain and regulate intracranial pressure
  • 2 lateral ventricles
  • third ventricle
  • fourth ventricle
203
Q

Protective layer of spinal cord

A

vertebral column

204
Q

Protective layers of brain

A
  • skin
  • skull
  • meninges (dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater)
205
Q

Dura mater

A

thick, tough, outermost membrane that adheres to the skull and arachnoid

206
Q

Arachnoid

A
  • semitransparent, thin and delicate, web-like, vascular, middle layer
  • cerebrospinal fluid fills subarachnoid space
207
Q

Pia mater

A

delicate, thin, transparent membrane that adheres to the brain

208
Q

Cerebral blood supply

A
  • brain requires 25% of body’s oxygen and 20% of its’ blood supply
  • lack of blood supply to brain can cause damage within 4-6 minutes
  • 4 major structures (aorta, vertebral arteries, carotid arteries, and Circle of Willis)
209
Q

Aorta

A

main artery of the heart that carries blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body

210
Q

Vertebral arteries (right and left)

A
  • emerge from two subclavian arteries that supply blood to the upper extremities
  • as they branch up, merge to form the basilar artery, which then divides again into two posterior cerebral arteries which supply the temporal and occipital lobes
  • other arteries supply the inner ear, cerebellum, and pons
211
Q

Carotid arteries (right and left)

A
  • enter the neck and branch to an internal and external artery and enter the brain
  • include exterior, middle, internal, and anterior
212
Q

External carotid artery

A

-moves toward face and branches into smaller arteries to supply the muscles of the mouth, nose, forehead and face

213
Q

Internal carotid artery

A

major supplier of blood to the brain

214
Q

Middle carotid artery

A

-supples the cortex/frontal lobe (motor and sensory functions and language, speech, and hearing functions

215
Q

Anterior carotid artery

A

supplies parietal and frontal lobes, corpus callosum, and basal ganglia

216
Q

Circle of Willis

A
  • formed at base of brain where two carotid and two vertebral arteries join and anterior and posterior communicating arteries
  • provides a common blood supply to various cerebral branches

Praxis Exam (3 decks)

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