Anatomy/Physiology Flashcards
(111 cards)
1
Q
What are glial cells?
A
Surround neurons and provide support for and insulation between them, which increases the speed at which impulses travel through the neural system.
Support neuronal function by regulating the environment of the nervous system and providing protection against harmful agents.
White matter; on the inside of the brain and the outside of the spinal cord.
2
Q
What are myelin sheaths? What are their role in speech?
A
Formed by glial cells. They surround the axons of neurons, providing electrical insulation and thereby increasing the speech of AP.
Damage of myelin sheaths = MS
3
Q
What neurons can regenerate if injured? Those in the PNS or CNS?
A
PNS.
CNS neurons have little regenerative capabilities due to their tendency to retract their processes and/or die after injury
4
Q
Describe the two subdivisions of the PNS
A
Somatic nervous system
- Supports sensation and motor function. Movements that are consciously perceived and volitionally controlled
Autonomic nervous system
- Supports functions that are mostly below conscious awareness
5
Q
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
Name the nerves, sensory or motor and what the control.
A
12
- Olfactory - Sensory
- Smell
- Optic - Sensory
- Processes visual info
- Damage can cause vision loss / difficulties reading/writing
- Occulomotor - Motor
- Trochlear - Motor
- Trigeminal - Sensory +
Motor- S: Facial sensation M: Jaw movements
- Crucial for oral sensations during speech and feeding
- Damage = facial numbness or jaw dysfunction
- Abducens - Motor
- Facial - Sensory + Motor
- Controls facial expressions and taste for anterior 2/3 of the tongue
- Bell’s Palsy affects this nerve, leading to facial droop
- Vestibulocochlear - Sensory
- Hearing and balance
- Glossopharyngeal - Sensory + Motor
- Taste for posterior 1/3 of tongue and aids in swallowing
- Influences swallowing and gag reflexes
- Vagus - Sensory + Motor
- Affects lungs, heart and digestive process
- Crucial for voice production
- Damage = vocal fold paralysis and dysphagia
- Accessory - Motor
- Controls specific neck muscles
- Damage = muscle weakness, difficulty with posture and keeping head up - Hypoglossus - Motor
- Controls tongue movements
- Damage = tongue weakness/paralysis
6
Q
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
A
31
7
Q
- Afferent nerves are sensory or motor?
- Efferent nerves are sensory or motor?
A
1.Sensory
2. Motor
8
Q
the CNS is covered by 3 layers of protective membranes called the meninges. These layers are…. (describe them)
A
- Pia
- The thin fibrous sheet that tightly
adheres to the surface of the
brain and spinal cord
- The thin fibrous sheet that tightly
- Arachnoid
- Spider weblike mesh of fibers
providing a region through
which cerebral spinal fluid can
flow
- Spider weblike mesh of fibers
- Dura
- the tough durable sac made of
dense fibrous tissue that
surround the entire brain and
spinal cord
- the tough durable sac made of
(PAD)
9
Q
Describe Hydrocephalus.
A
When the flow of cerebral spinal fluid through the ventricular system is blocked, it causes elevated CSF pressure.
10
Q
How many ventricles in the brain?
A
4
- Right ventricle
- Left ventricle
- Third ventricle on the midline of the brain
- Fourth ventricle at the base of the cerebellum
11
Q
3 major segments of the brainstem and describe what they do
A
- Medulla oblongata
- The lowest segment of the brainstem that contains neural circuitry for respiration, cardiac rate, and reflexes such as coughing, vomiting, and swallowing
- Pons
- The region of the brainstem where several cranial nerves have their associated nuclei (including motor nuclei for chewing, facial expressions, vestibular, and cochlear sensory functions)
- Midbrain
- The region of the brainstem that processes visual and acoustic information
12
Q
- Periaqueductal gray in the midbrain is important for what speech functions?
- Lesions can cause what?
A
- The PAG plays a vital role in coordinating phonatory, articulatory, and respiratory movements for sound production
- Mutism
13
Q
What role does the cerebellum play? Lesions create:
A
Plays an important role in motor control by comparing motor intent and motor outcome. it sends error correction info to the motor cortex.
Lesions = disrupts the coordination and precision of motor behaviours
(ataxia)
14
Q
Describe Reticular formation
A
a collection of cell collins and interconnecting networks (centered in the pons) that coordinate motor functions of the head (such as mastication and articulation)
15
Q
The anterior portion of the frontal lobe (the prefrontal cortex) contributes to…
A
- executive functioning
- attention
- monitoring
- planning
- decision making
16
Q
Pyramidal system:
1. What does it contain?
2. What are the 2 divisions?
A
- Upper motor neurons: Found in cerebral cortex/brainstem. Transmits nerve impulses from brain to lower motor neurons.
- Lower motor neurons: Found in brainstem/spinal cord. Transmits nerve impulses from upper motor neurons to muscles
- Corticospinal: The UMN originate in the primary motor cortex, descend through the internal capsule, once they reach the transition point from the brainstem to the spinal cord, the fibers crossover in the pyramidal decussation and control muscles on the opposite (contralateral) side of the body
CS: Synapses/terminate in spinal cord. Controls movements in limbs and trunk
(hint: corticospinal - spinal cord)
- Corticospinal: The UMN originate in the primary motor cortex, descend through the internal capsule, once they reach the transition point from the brainstem to the spinal cord, the fibers crossover in the pyramidal decussation and control muscles on the opposite (contralateral) side of the body
CB: Synapses/terminate in brainstem. Controls muscles of face, head, neck
(hint: corticobulbar - brainstem)
- Corticobulbar: controls the muscles of the face and neck. Contains UMN in the cerebellum and LMN in the brainstem. It is typically bilateral control, with the exception of CN VII (lower face) and CN XII (tongue), where it is controlateral
17
Q
Efferent vs afferant nerves
A
Efferent: motor nerve, sends signal down to the nerve to innervate muscle (efferent exits)
Afferant: sensory nerve, signal come up from sensory organ via nerve to brain (afferent arrives)
18
Q
What is the function of the direct motor pathway?
A
To control skilled, voluntary movements to our extremities
19
Q
- What is the final common pathway?
- Damage to the final common pathway results in…
A
- Where the axons that project from lower motor neurons contact striated muscle
- muscle paresis or paralysis, muscle atrophy, fibrillations
20
Q
True/False: the basal ganglia exerts direct motor control
A
False; the basal ganglia contribute inhibitory or facilitatory input to the cortex
21
Q
interruption to the directions and indirect pathways in the basal ganglia lead to…
A
movement disorders of initiation or muscle tone
- tremors
- athetosis
- ballism
- chorea
22
Q
What is athetosis (symptom)? What disorders have this as a symptom?
A
slow, repetitive writhing movements
23
Q
Describe chorea. What disorders have chorea as a symptom?
A
rhythmic, repetitive jerking movements
Huntington’s disease
24
Q
Describe ballism. What disorders have this as a symptom?
A
sudden, jerky flinging movements
25
Pryramidial vs extrapyramidial systems
Pyramidial: Tracts (originate in cerebral cortex) carry fibers to --> spinal cord/brainstem. Voluntary control (body + face muscles)
Extrapyramidal: Tracts (originate in brainstem) carry fibers to --> spinal cord. Involuntary & Automatic control (tone, balance, posture, etc.)
26
Define these positional terms:
1. Unilateral
2. Bilateral
3. Ipsilateral
4. Contralateral
5. Proximal
6. Distal
7. Anterior
8. Posterior
9. Rostral
10. Caudal
1. One side innervating
2. Both sides innervating
3. Same side of body
4. Opposite side of body
5. Near given position
6. Away from given position
7. In front of
8. Behind
9. Front, towards the nose
10. Back, towards the tail
27
How many signals is sourced from the primary motor cortex?
Half or more of all of the body motor control signals
27
Broca’s area (Location and role)
- Inferior frontal gyrus in the left hemisphere
- Important for language production
28
Location of the primary somatosensory cortex
The most anterior portion of the parietal lobe, the post central gyrus
28
What is the premotor cortex is involved in? What lobe is it located in?
the performance of skilled motor movements such as those necessary for speech, grasping, etc. Frontal lobe.
28
What is the importance of the homunculus in relation to the primary motor cortex?
The homunculus demonstrates that functions requiring relatively more neural processing take up relatively more cortex
29
What information does the somatosensory cortex receive?
- body sensations (excluding hearing and vision)
- it is also organized with sensitive regions taking up relatively more cortex
29
where is the primary auditory cortex located?
wishing the superior surface of the temporal lobe superior to Heschl’s gyrus
29
Wernicke’s area (location and role)
- adjacent to the primary auditory cortex in the left hemisphere
- Important for language comprehension (spoken and written)
29
What are the 3 major divisions of the brain? Describe their roles.
1. Forebrain
- Two subdivisions: Telencephalon and Diencephalon
- Largest brain division: Processes sensory info, reasoning/problem solving, automatic, motor functions
2. Midbrain
- Regulates movements and processes visual and auditory info
- Houses substantial nigra (production of neurotransmitter - dopamine)
- Connects the forebrain to the hindbrain
3. Hindbrain
- Regulates autonomic functions, balance, equilibrum, relay of sensory info
- 2 subdivisions: Metencephalon and Myencephalon
30
What are the two subdivisions of the forebrain? Describe their roles.
Telecephalon
- Cerebral cortex (divided into four different major lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital)
Diencephalon
- Connects endocrine with nervous system: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pineal Gland
31
What are the 2 subdivisions of the hind brain? Describe their role.
Metencephalon: Pons & cerebellum
Myencephalon: Medula oblongata
32
3 types of white matter in the CNS :
1. Association fibers: Fibers within the cerebral hemisphere that form short connections between adjacent gyri or longer connection between lobes
2. Commissural fibers: Transverse fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain
3. Projection fibers: connects cerebral cortex to the brainstem and below
33
1. White matter that is interhemispheric:
2. White matter that is intrahemispheric:
1. Commissural fibers (connects right and left hemispheres)
2. Association fibers (within the same hemisphere)
34
Describe the function of the circle of willis and its 3 major arteries.
Connects the internal carotid and vertebral/basilar system
Artieries:
- Middle cerebral artery
- Anterior cerebral artery
- Posterior cerebral artery
35
What are the 6 cranial nerves important for speech? Why?
CN V: Trigeminal
CN VII: Facial
CN IX: Glossopharyngeal
CN X: Vagus
CN XI: Accessory
CN XII: Hypoglossal
36
Group of 4 muscles responsible for chewing? Why?
Muscles of mastication.
Masseter muscle:
- Muscle of mastication that connects mandible and cheekbone. Elevates mandible and closes the mouth .
Temporalis muscle:
- Muscle of mastication that retracts and elevates mandible, side to side movement. Large, fan-shaped muscle
Medial pterygoid:
-Muscle of mastication that connects mandible with maxilla, sphenoid, & palatine bones. Elevates mandible and protrudes the jaw.
- Lateral pterygoid:
Muscle of mastication that depresses and protrudes mandible to open mouth. Two-headed muscle located in infra temporal fossa of skull
37
Thick, dome-shaped muscle that separates the abdomen from the thorax
Diaphragm
38
In adults, the breathing cycle occurs ____ per minute
12-18x
39
Why is respiration an important part of speech?
Respiration provides air supply needed to set the vocal folds into vibration for speech
40
Accessory muscles are also involved in the process respiration. Three of the key neck muscles are:
Sternocleidomatoid
- Elevates the sternum, and thus indirectly, the rib cage
Trapezius
- Controls the head and elongates the neck and thus indirectly influences respiration
Scalenes
- Stabilizes and rotates the head
41
Muscles of the shoulder and upper arm act to move the rib cage and increase or decrease its dimensions. These muscles include:
- Pectoralis major
- Pectoralis minor
- Serratus anterior
- Levator scapulae
42
Two posterior muscles are involved in respiration, helping pull the rib cage down and thus aid in exhalation:
- Subcostal muscle
- Serratus posterior inferior muscles
43
T or F: All muscles help with inhalation, none are needed for exhalation
F. While most muscles involved with breathing assist with inhalation, muscle action is also needed for exhalation of air.
44
When a person is breathing quietly, the vocal folds are:
a. abducted
b. adducted
A. abducted
45
The anterior surface of the thyroid cartilage called the laminae that meet at the midline to form the _______
Thyroid angle
46
Cartilage that completely surrounds the trachea and is larger in the back than in the front
Cricoid cartilage
47
The ____ muscles are paired. Each ____ is attached to the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages and is divided into two muscle masses: the ____ and ______
Thyroarytenoid
internal thyroarytenoid
external thyroarytenoid
48
The _____ is the primary portion of the thyroarytenoid muscle, which vibrates and _____. It is generally known as the _______
Internal thyroarytenoid
produces sound
vocalis muscle/vocal folds
49
The ______ is lateral to the vocalis and, when contracted, aids in vocal fold adduction.
external thyroarytenoid
50
The cricothyroid muscle is attached to the cricoid and thyroid cartilages. It _____
lengthens and tenses the vocal folds, resulting in pitch changes.
51
Tongue muscles + innervation
p.
52
Laryngeal muscles
53
Parts of the tongue
- Tip
- Blade
- Dorsum
- Root
- Lingual frenulum
p.26
54
What are the primary muscle of the lips?
Orbicularis oris
55
Cheeks are primarily composed of which muscle?
Buccinator muscle
56
Facial muscles are innervated by which nerve?
Cranial nerve VII, Facial
57
Describe what deciduous teeth are.
Temporary teeth that appear in a baby. Babies normally have 20 deciduous teeth (adults have 32 teeth)
58
Malocclusion. Describe 3 different types.
Deviations in the positioning of individual teeth.
Class I:
Class II:
Class III:
59
Primary mechanism of attention and consciousness - arouses the cortex
Important control in controlling sleep-wake cycle
Reticular Activating System
60
How are the basal ganglia association cortex and cerebellum involved in speech?
The association cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum are related to quality of movement and tell
the muscle how to move. The association cortex regards the appropriation of movement, the basal ganglia is related to initiation of movement, and the cerebellum relates to smooth trajectory of movement, or coordination. The motor thalamus is also involved at this level of the
hierarchy. It is responsible to relay information between the cerebellum and the motor cortex, and between the basal ganglia and the motor cortex.
61
What is the use of the LMNs in the motor control hierarchy?
The remaining components of the pathway are related to the quantity of movement and overall muscle strength. Lower motor neurons are called the “final common pathway” because they are the most distal connection between theCNS and the muscle.
62
Describe the motor control hierarchy.
Upper motor neuron -> LMN -> peripheral nerve -> neuromuscular junction -> muscle
63
Stroke in what hemisphere could cause Broca's aphasia?
Left hemisphere stroke could cause damage in Broca's area, resulting in Broca's aphasia
64
How might damage to the pyramidal/extrapyramidal system impact speech?
Extrapyramidal system affects posture and tone; as well as the regulation of reflexes [which are involuntary in nature]
Can result in dysarthria if damaged
65
How might damage to the basal ganglia impact speech?
Problems with initiating movements
Can result in abnormal, involuntary movements, or abnormal, involuntary postures
Disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease can cause involuntary tremors and continuous writhing
movements of the extremities
Long term use of antipsychotic drugs that target the dopamine
system can result in involuntary movements of the tongue, face, arms, lips and other body parts
66
How might damage to the association cortex impact speech?
Difficulties with the appropriateness of movements
Fine motor movements and approximation of articulators will be impacted
67
How might damage to the cerebellum impact speech?
Abnormal trajectory of movements, lack of coordination
Lesions to the vestibulocerebellum can affect posture
Can result in a staccato nature of speech, slow and disjointed
68
How might damage to the UMN impact speech?
Weakness with heightened muscle tendon reflexes, hypertonia
69
How might damage to the LMN impact speech?
Muscle fasciculations, atrophy
Decreased muscle tone
Muscle weakness is often profound in LMN disorders, in localized regions of the body
Damage can arise from diseases such as polio, or localized lesions near the spinal cord
70
How might damage to the neuromuscular junction impact speech?
Decreases nerve-cell activity, and results in muscle weakness
This does not impact sensation of muscles (ie. tingling)
71
How might damage to the muscle impact speech?
Muscle weakness, increased fatigue
Results in poor intelligibility, difficulty with articulation, muscle control of the tongue
Any damage directly to the muscles themselves will have limitations on movement, coordination and timing
72
What causes dysarthria?
An impairment to either the cerebellum, basal ganglia, cerebral cortex or white matter tracts, pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems, cranial nerves, and lower motor neurons. Characterized by a difficulty with motor execution.
73
What causes apraxia of speech?
An impairment to the left hemisphere (Broca’s area, motor cortex). Characterized by a difficulty with motor planning.
74
How might damage to an area of the motor hierarchy impact respiration?
Slow, restricted, weak, or uncoordinated muscle activity used in breathing for
speech
75
How might damage to an area of the motor hierarchy impact phonation?
Difficulties producing smooth sound in the larynx
76
How might damage to an area of the motor hierarchy impact resonance?
Difficulty to selectively amplify sound by changing the size, shape, or number of cavities through which it must pass
77
What are the key principles to neuroplasticity?
Use it or lose it: If a neural substrate is not biologically active, its function can degrade; disuse leads to weakening of synapses of neglected function, strengthening of synapses involved in more consistent behaviours.
Use it and improved: must consider what and how we are using and engaging the system to maximize functional outcomes.
Reprition matters: success typically corresponds with number of repetitions, treatment sessions, and duration.
Time matters: brain is often most amenable to change early on
Intensity matters: skeletal muscle does not adapt unless it is forced beyond to typical range of activity (overload principle)
Specificity matters: what is being repeated
Salience matters: important for therapist to know what is important and what pt takes away.
Difficulty matters: targets must be achievable, challenging, progress in difficulty (load, duration, skill)
Transference
Interference: may involve unlearning
Age matters: younger brains better
78
Sumarize motor speech development.
I: tone (body and facial tone, reflexes)
II: Phonatory control (airstreams, phonation, resonance)
III: jaw control vertical movement (range, grading, mid-line mov’t)
IV: labial facial control horizontal (bilabials, rounding, retraction, individual lip)
V: tongue control (anterior/ posterior - independent mov’t from jaw)
VI: Sequenced movement
VII: Prosody
79
Describe typical jaw movements.
Range needs to allow for the lips and tongue to move and make contact with other structures.
Jaw needs to be stable, with no sliding or thrusting. This allows for the development of controlled movement in other articulators and allows for development of differentiated and refined movement in other articulators. movement needs to be controlled in order to open and close, and grade movement in fine increments between the positions.
80
How must the lips move for development?
Lips must move independently without the help of the jaw to achieve closure,
rounding, retraction, and individual lip movement (ie. /f/)
81
Name the parts of the brain found in the frontal lobe and describe what it does.
Frontal lobe: Largest lobe in the brain. Responsible for personality, decision making and motor control.
Parts of the FL:
- Orbitofrontal cortex: Helps us understand the consequences of complex behaviours and adjust those behaviours to reach a specific outcome, particularly social behaviour.
- Premotor cortex: Controls complex movements, like reaching or grasping with hands, and also helps control posture. Also plays a role in decision making, similar to prefrontal cortex.
- Middle frontal gyrus: Negotiates between our goal-directed behaviours and our reactions to external events, reconciling info from the orbitofrontal cortex with sensory info from the rest of the cerebral cortex.
- Inferior frontal gyrus: Responsible for response inhibition, or stopping a behaviour when given appropriate cue. Left inferior frontal gyrus is also the home of Broca's area
- Prefrontal cortex: Grants us executive function, or the ability to make complex and socially mindful decisions. It must filter out unimportant sensations, focus our attention on the task at hand, and contextualize our decisions with memories of the past and predictions about how behaviours will influence the future. Behaviours and personality traits unique to humans often depend on the prefrontal cortex.
- Motor cortex: Directions movement by controlling muscle contractions. The primary motor cortex constantly communicates with the basal ganglia, the cerebellum and areas of the cerebral cortex to ensure movements are intentional, precise and coordinated.
- Broca's area: Located in the left inferior frontal gyrus (in most people). Necessary for the production and coordination of speech.
82
Name the parts of the brain found in the occipital lobe and describe what it does.
Occipital lobe: Decodes visual signals. Information arrives from the retina via the thalamus.
Parts of the OL:
- Primary visual cortex: Is the first to receive visual information. Everything in the left half of your visual field is decoded by the right side of the brain and vice versa.
83
Name the parts of the brain found in the parietal lobe and describe what it does.
Parietal lobe: Interprets our sense of touch (somatosensation) and monitors relative position of the body (proprioception). Also receives signals from the occipital lobe that reflect the location of an object in our visual field.
Parts of the PL:
- Inferior parietal lobule: Contributes to variety of mental tasks such as mathematical reasoning, language comprehension, and the use of tools.
- Superior parietal lobe: Reconciles visual info from occipital lobe with the sense of touch from somatosensory cortex. Helps us identify objects by touch, sift through pieces of info held in working memory.
- Precuneus: Has a tendency to be spared by stroke or head trauma. Responsible for imagination, self-consciousness, and reflection on memories of past events.
- Somatosensory cortex: Receives info from touch receptors located throughout the body in the skin. Like the motor cortex, it is organized according to a distorted mapping of the human body, or homonuculus.
84
Name the parts of the brain found in the temporal lobe and describe what it does.
Temporal lobe: Houses memories, emotions, and language comprehension. Also key for recognition of objects, places and people. The TL links words, written or spoken, to their semantic meaning. It is also a "hotspot" for epilepsy.
Parts of the TL:
- Primary auditory cortex: Interprets sounds. Enables the identification of unique sounds, and helps us quickly identify where sounds are coming from. Damage to this leads to loss of conscious awareness of sounds, but leaves reflecive hearing intact (brainstem is responsible for our subconscious auditory reflexes).
- Wernicke's area: Allows us to comprehend language, both written and spoken.
85
Name what controls respiration and differentiate tidal breathing, sustained tone, and speech.
The CNS and PNS control respiration.
Tidal breathing is the amount you typically breath in and out at rest (looks like a smooth wave). Sustained tone is what occurs when you are holding a sound, resulting in a sharp quick inhale with sustained exhale alone with phonation. Speech results in sharp quick inhales with extended bumpy exhales, sort of like a staircase.
86
Define vital capacity and tidal volume.
VC: The maximum amount you can breathe in and out. Depending on the size of your rib cage, this is usually 3.5-5 litres of air.
TV: the amount you typically breathe in and out at rest.
87
Define inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume.
IRV: the amount you can inspire if needed, beyond your end-inspiratory tidal volume.
ERV: the amount of air you can expire from your lunch after your end-expiratory lung volume in tidal breathing.
88
1. Describe what happens on inspiration, including muscles involved
2. Describe what happens on exhalation, including muscles involved
1.
- External intercostals actively contract, pulling the ribcage upwards.
- Diaphagm actively flattens to accommodate expansion of the lungs.
- Note that your abdominal muscles are always on during inspiration and exhalation.
2.
- External intercostals passively recoil.
- Diagphragm massively returns to rest position
- Lungs passively recoil.
- For active exhalation, the internal intercostals may be involved as they pull the ribs downwards to squeeze out air from your ERV. The abdominal muscles may also engage.
89
Describe breathing during speech.
Speech breathing has a short inspiration with a longer expiration with many fine adjustments made during the exhalation. We speak in the middle of our lung volume. Exhalation during speech is often an active process, requiring involvement from internal intercostals and abdominal muscles.
90
What is included in the phonatory system?
Includes the larynx and vocal folds. In the source-filter model, the phonatory system is involved in generating the source signal from which speech is derived. The source signal will have its own fundamental frequency (f0) and will generate harmonics (multiples of the f0).
91
What two conditions need be met for vocal folds to be set in motion?
92
Describe the primary auditory cortex.
Located in the temporal lobes on both sides of the cortex in an area called superior temporal gyrus (Heschl’s gyrus)
The tonotopic organization continues in the cortex
Information is finally processed at this level
Loudness perception and pitch are controlled at the brainstem, but higher-level behaviours (understanding speech and processing complex signals) is at the auditory cortex
Speech is primarily processed in the LEFT Auditory Cortex.
This means speech information from the right AC (information from left cochlea) crosses to the left AC, via the corpus callosum to be processed by the brain.
93
Discuss the basic embryology and development of the auditory system.
The eustachian tubes are more horizontal in babies/young children, which often results in poor drainage; this is the reason young children are so susceptible to ear infections (as are individuals with Down Syndrome) due to fluid build up
The brainstem and auditory cortex are not mature at birth;
Brainstem response is adult-like by 18-24 months
Auditory cortex is ½ the thickness at birth; development continues until age 2-3
Undetected hearing loss stunts auditory cortex development
94
Describe the limbic system.
The part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses. Includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus.
95
Name the four primary cortex of the brain.
Primary motor
Primary somatosensory
Primary auditory
Primary visual
96
What is the function of the temporal gyri (Superior, middle and inferior)?
Processing eye movements, analysis of visual social information, semantic memory processing, language processes, visual perception, and integrating information from different senses
97
What are the functions of the association cortex?
Coordinates brain functions that require more than basic primary sensory or motor functions.
Can include language, attention, memory, visuospatial functions, mathematical functions, social cognition, reasoning, problem-solving, personality, critical thinking.
Main purpose = Appropriate use of muscles (QUALITY; planning, sequencing) in context
98
What is the epithalamus?
Pineal gland secretes melatonin, epithalamus connects diencephalon to limbic system and cortex
99
What is the function of the basal ganglia? Name the 4 divisions.
Made up of the caudate and putamen nuclei, the globus pallidus, the subthalamic nucleus, and the substantia nigra.
Refines motor commands from the cortex by receiving and processing information from the cortex, then sending it back to the cortex through the thalamus.
Involved in the initiation (and inhibition) of movement
100
What are the key principles of neuroplasticity?
Use it or lose it
Use it and improve it
Repetition matters
Time matters
Intensity matters
Specificity matters
Salience matters
Difficulty matters
Transference
Interference
Age matters
101
Describe the steps of responding “no” to a question.
In order to respond “no” to a question, the auditory cortex will first receive information.
From the auditory cortex, the prefrontal cortex makes the decision to respond.
Muscle actions are planned in the premotor and supplementary motor area, which is connected to Broca’s area (“broken tongue” – expression is impaired).
Then, info is sent to basal ganglia to decide if and how to proceed with action.
Muscle actions begin to be planned in the premotor area, then are sent to basal ganglia that decides whether to initiate movement based on previous experiences
Info goes back to the thalamus, which directs info to the primary motor cortex, which sends info to the brainstem and spinal cord, as well as a copy being sent to the cerebellum (allows the cortex to make adjustments)
102
Name the different types memory and name the associated brain structures.
Sensory memory: peripheral receptors
Working: frontal lobes and anterior structures of the limbic system
Long-term (declarative): association cortex, medial temporal lobe, hippocampal formation, adjacent cortex of parahippocampal gyrus, medialdiencephalic memory areas, thalamus, mammillary bodies, other diencephalic nuclei lining 3rd ventrical
Long-term (non-declarative): subcortical structures and cerebellum
103
Name the three types of declarative memory and their associated structures.
Episodic: temporal neocortex
Lexical: angular gyrus
Semantic: temporal parietal, frontal association cortex
104
Name the extrinsic laryngeal muscles.
Infrahyoid: (Depresses larynx)
Thyrohyoid
Omohyoid
Sternohyoid
Sternothyroid
Suprahyoid: (Elevates larynx)
Myohyoid
Geniohyoid
Stylohyoid
Diagastric
105
Name the intrinsic laryngeal muscles.
Adductor:
Lateral Cricoarytenoid
Transverse Arytenoid
Abductor:
Posterior cricoarytenoid
Sphincter:
Oblique arytenoid
Aryepiglottic
