ANATOMY - Term Test 3 (Respiratory System) Flashcards

Question

Which muscles are used for forced expiration?

Answer 1

abdominal and internal intercosal muscles

Answer 2

Air moves down its pressure gradient so the air will move from the high pressure lungs, out into the atmosphere (aka expiration)

Answer 3

amount of air that can be forcibly expired after a maximal inspiration and therefore indicates **the largest amount of air that can move into and out of the lungs during respiration** * ~4500 to 5000 mL IRV (inspiratory reserve volume) + TV (tidal volume) + ERV (expiratory reserve volume) = vital capacity (VC) * can vary with size of thoracic caviy, posture (larger VC when standing erect vs when stooped over/lying down), & various other factors (volume of blood in lungs - more blood = less alveolar air space = less VC) * larger persion has a larger VC than a smaller person * excess fluid in pleural or abdominal cavities decreases VC * emphysema decreases VC (because alveolar walls become stretched, lose elastricity, unable to recoil normally after expiration = increased RV)

Answer 4

decreased vital capacity (VC)

Answer 5

* Alveolar air PO2 decreases as altitude increases, thus less oxygen enters the body at high altitudes * At a certain high altitude, alveolar air PO₂ = PO₂of blood entering pulmonary capillaries * Gases move from an area of high pressure to low pressure, but because the pressure is the same in the pulmonary capillaries and the alveoli no movement or exchange takes place. * Decreased oxygen diffusion into the blood * this leads to trouble breathing

Answer 6

1) **The oxygen pressure gradient between alveolar air and incoming pulmonary blood** (alveolar PO2 - blood PO2) 2) **The total functional surface area of the respiratory membrane** (area that is freely permeable to oxygen) - decrese in functional SA = decrease in oxygen diffusion 3) **The respiratory minute volume (resp rate per minute x volume of air inspired per respiration)** - decreased respiraory minute volume = decrease in oxygen entering into blood 4) **Alveolar ventilation** (the volume of inspired air that actually reaches the alveoli)

Answer 7

apnea breathing stops entirely for a few moments (apnea) when arterial PCO2 drops moderately (such as during hyperventilation when lots of CO₂ is being blown off)

Answer 8

Bicarbonate ions (67%) Other forms: * dissolved in plasma and transported as a solute - small amount (10%) * carbaminohemoglobin - CO₂ united with NH₂ (amine groups) to form carbamino compounds (20-25%)

Answer 9

* arterial blood pressure helps control breathing via **respiratory** **pressoreflex mechanism** * sudden rise in arterial pressure acts on aortic and carotid baroreceptors and causes reflex of slowing respirations * inversely, a drop in arterial pressure stimulates reflex to increase RR and depth

Answer 10

* Oxyhemoglobin (attaches to iron atom in each heme group) - majority * only 1.5% travels as dissolved O2 in arterial plasma \*note that blood transports oxygen and carbon dioxide either as solutes or combined with other chemicals because fluids can only hold small amounts of gas in solution

Answer 11

**Compliance:** ability for lungs/thorax to stretch out on inspiration - essential to normal respiration * if compliance is reduced by injury/disease, inspiration becomes difficulty **Elastic recoil**: tendency for lungs/thorax to return to pre-inspiration volume (if affected by disease, expirations must be forced even at rest)

Answer 12

**Apneustic center:** located in the pons - may provide input to the medullary rhythmicity area to regulate length and depth of inspiration * damage to the nerves from the apneustic center is thought to produce abnormally long deep inspirations (apneustic breathing) **Inspiratory center:** part of medullary rhythmicity area in medulla oblongata (brainstem)

Answer 13

**Internal respiration:** gas exchange in the systemic blood capillaries and cellular respiration **External respiration:** pulmonary ventilation (breathing) and gas exchange in the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs

Answer 14

**Inspiration:** When atmospheric pressure is greater than pressure within the lung, air moves down its pressure gradient and air moves into the lungs Inversely, if the pressure in the lungs becomes greater than the atmosphere, expiration occurs

Answer 15

Cellular respiration increases which increases partial pressure of CO2 which goes down a chemoreceptor chain to increase respiration rate (body has greater requirement for oxygen) 1) Increased cell respiration during exercise cause a rise in plasma PCO2 2) This is detected by chemoreceptors ⇒ info is sent to respiratory centers in the brainstem 3) Respiratory muscles & diaphragm act as effectors which increase respiratory rate 4) As resp rate increases, the rate of CO2 loss increases and PCO2 drops

Answer 16

* The pressure between the parietal and visceral pleura is always negative (less than the alveolar pressure) and this negative intrapleural pressure is required to overcome the lungs collapsing. * A pneumothorax is air in the thoracic cavity and with a pneumothorax, the residual volume is eliminated * Intrapleural pressure increases to atmospheric level, more pressure than normal is exerted on the outer surface of the punctured lung and causes it to collapse. - this also causes pressure buildup on the functional lung * This pressure is due to the mediastinum being mobile, and the pressure is pushing the heart and other structures toward the intact side

Answer 17

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease * broad term used to describe conditions of progressive and irreversible obstruction of expiratory airflow * chronic difficulties with breathing (mainly by emptying their lungs) and have visibly hyperinflated chests * includes chronic bronchitis, emphysema * **Causes**: tobacco use (primary cause); air pollution; asthma; resp infections * **Sx:** productive cough, activity intolerance; can lead to acute resp failure, heart failure * **Treatment:** brochodilators, corticosteroids

Answer 18

* disorders that involve restriction of the alveoli or reduced compliance, leading to decreased lung inflation. * Hallmark: decreased lung volumes and capacities such as inspiratory reserve volume and vital capacity * Factors: can originate within or outside lungs * ex. alveolar scarring 2' to work exposures (asbestos, fumes) * immunological diseases (rheumatoid lung) * obesity * metabolic disorders (uremia) * can also be from pain 2' to inflammation or mechanical injuries * Sx: dyspnea, intolerance to increased activity * Tx: cause eliminiation, adequate gas exchange, improving exercise tolerance

Answer 19

* Air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles are enlarged as a result of damage to lung connective tissue * Bronchioles collapse and the alveoli enlarge, leading to rupture of alveolar walls and fusion into large irregular spaces (gas-exchange units are destroyed) * Cause: unknown but potentially caused by proteolytic enzymes that destroy lung tissue * Hypoxia often develops in people with emphysema

Answer 20

* Production of excessive tracheobronchial secretions that obstruct airflow, bronchial mucus glands are enlarged * air tubes narrow as a result of swollen tissues and excessive mucus production * Risk Factors: cigarette smoking, normal decline in pulmonary function due to age, environmental exposure to dust and chemicals * alveoli impaired and loss of capillary beds results in inefficient gas exchange which produces hypoxia

Answer 21

* obstructive lung disorder characterized by recurring inflammation of mucous membranes (edema and ++mucus production) and spasms of the smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchial air passages (narrowing of airways due to inflammation) * asthma attacks (acute onset) - can be triggered by stress, heavy exercise, infection, or allergen exposure/irritants * Sx: dyspnea (major Sx); hyperventilation; headaches; numbness and nausea * Treatment: inhaled or systemic bronchodilators to reduce muscle spasms and open airways; use of anti-inflammatory medications

Answer 22

* describes normal quiet breathing * when the need for O2 and CO2 exchange is being met (normal breathing!) * individual is not usually conscious of the breathing pattern

Answer 23

* Labored or difficult breathing and is often associated with hypoventilation * person is aware of breathing pattern and is generally uncomfortable/in distress

Answer 24

characterized by repeated sequences of deep gasps and apnea, abnormal breathing pattern seen in individuals with increased intracranial pressure

Answer 25

periodic type of abnormal breathing seen in terminally ill or brain damaged patients, cycles of gradually increasing tidal volume for several breaths followed by several breaths with gradually decreasing tidal volume.

Answer 26

Cessation of breathing in the inspiratory position. Respiratory arrest is the failure to resume breathing after a period of apnea or apneusis

Answer 27

* increase in pulmonary ventilation in excess of the need for oxygen * sometimes results from a conscious voluntary effort preceding exertion of psychogenic factors (hysterical hyperventilation)

Answer 28

temporary cessation of breathing at the end of normal expiration, may occur during sleep or when swallowing

Answer 29

* dyspnea while lying down and is relieved by sitting or standing up * common in patients with heart disease

Answer 30

* increased breathing that is regulated to meet an increased demand by the body for oxygen * increase in pulmonary ventilation ocurs * oxygen deman is met by increases in tidal volume and/or breathing frequency * causes: exercise

Answer 31

* lower rate of breathing; decrease in pulmonary ventilation that results in elevated blood levels of CO2

Answer 32

Air through the mouth would not be as humidified, warmed or as filtered as air through the nose.

Answer 33

* i.e the structures that protrude the face (bony, cartilagenous framework covered by skin with sebaceous glands) * two nasal bones that meet in the center of the face, below forehead (this is also surrounded by frontal bone) * base of nose surrounded by maxilla laterally and inferiorly * nostril openings (ala)

Answer 34

* lies over roof of mouth where palatine bones separate nasal cavities from mouth cavity * roof of nose is separated from cranial cavity the **cribriform plate**

Answer 35

* When palatine bones fail to unite completely * mouth is only partially separated from the nasal cavity, results in swallowing and speaking difficulties

Answer 36

septum 4 main structures: * perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone above * vomer bone * septal nasal cartilage * vomeronasal cartilages

Answer 37

* nasal passageways in each nasal cavity * These structures are made by the projection of the **conchae/tubrinates** curving from lateral walls of the internal portion of the nose

Answer 38

nostrils **function:** boundary between external environment and nasal cavity

Answer 39

* vestibule - lined with skin; vibrissae (coarse hairs), sebaceous glands, and numerous sweat glands are in vestibule skin * function of vestibule: conducts air between external environment and resp portion of nasal cavity * vibrissae prevent entry of large contaminants

Answer 40

Anterior/exteneral nares → vestibule → inferior, middle and superior meatuses (simultaneously) → posterior (internal) nares

Answer 41

* extends from inferior meatus to small funnel-shape of orifices of posterior (internal) nares * posterior nares are openings that allow air to pass from nasal cavity into the pharynx * where the respiratory mucosa is

Answer 42

* 4 pairs (frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid sinuses) * air-containing spaces that lighten weight of skull and open/drain into nasal cavity * lined by resp mucosa * their size and shape varies with ppl and change as we age * **Function:** reduce weight of skull; help warm and humidify air

Answer 43

just above their corresponding orbit (so R and L orbit)

Answer 44

* largest of the sinuses and extends into maxilla on either side of the nose

Answer 45

in the body of the sphenoid bone on either side of the midline in close proximity to the optic nerves and pituitary gland

Answer 46

Ethmoid sinuses

Answer 47

* **into middle meatus (passageway below middle concha)** - frontal, maxillary, anterior, and middle ethmoid sinuses * **into superior meatus** - posterior ethmoidal sinuses * **into space above superior conchae (sphenoehtmoidal recess)** - sphenoid sinuses

Answer 48

* **passageway for air going to and from lungs** * **filters impurities, warms, moistened and chemically examines** (via olfaction) to detecting potentially irritating substances * nasal hairs (vibrissae) - "**initial filter**" to screen matter from air coming in * turburinates/conchae then serve as baffles to **slow and stir air** & provide a large mucus covered surface area that air has to pass over before reaching pharynx * mucus secretions in nose - **final "trap" of remaining matter** to be removed as it travels through nasal passages (along with lacrimal glands that do similar function) * hollow sinuses act to lighten the skull bones - serves as resonating chambers for **speech** * **olfaction** - swirling of air by middle and superior conchae over olfactory epithelium

Answer 49

**1) Nasopharynx** - located behind nose and extends from posterior nares to level of soft palate; conducts air between posterior nares and oropharynx **2) Oropharynx** - located behind mouth from soft palate above to level of hyoid bone below; conducts air between nasopharynx and/or oral cavity and laryngopharynx **3) Laryngopharynx** - extends from hyoid bone to esophagus; conducts betwen oropharynx and larynx

Answer 50

There are 7 * R and L auditory (eustachian) tubes opening into nasopharynx * 2 posterior nares opening into nasopharynx * Opening from mouth (fauces) into oropharynx * opening into larynx from laryngopharynx * opening into esophagus from laryngopharynx

Answer 51

**Common nane:** voice box **Location:** lies between root of tongue and upper end of trachea, anterior to the lowest part of the pharynx; vestibule opening into the trachea from the pharynx * thyroid gland and carotid artery touch the sides of the larynx **Structure:** triangle shaped consisting of mostly cartilage attached to each other and surrounding structures via muscles/fibrous or elastic tissue; lined with ciliated mucous membrane (respiratory mucosa) **Function:** * respiration (part of airway to lungs) & removes dust particles via cilia, warms and humidifies inspired air * protects airway against entrance of solids/liquids during swallowing * voice production

Answer 52

* upper folds in the mucous membrane lining the larynx * aka **false vocal folds** (because not involved in vocalization) * **Function:** slow contaminents dripping toward lower airways

Answer 53

* aka **true vocal folds** * the lower pair of folds in the mucous membrane lining the larynx * lined with nonkeratinized strategied squamous epithelium and supported by vocal ligament * **Function:** produce sounds for speech/vocalization; prevent contaminents from entering lower airways

Answer 54

slitlike space between the left and right vocal folds, also the narrowest part of the larynx

Answer 55

Vocal folds + rima glottidis (the slit-like space between the vocal folds)

Answer 56

ventricle (or laryngeal ventricle)

Answer 57

infraglottic cavity (which conducts air between vocal folds and trachea)

Answer 58

* 9 in total * 3 largest - thyroid cartilage, epiglottis, cricoid cartilage (single structures) * three pairs (so 6 total) of smaller accessory cartilages - arytenoid, corniculate, cuneiform cartilages

Answer 59

* Largest cartilage of the larynx * gives larynx its characteristic triangular shape to its anterior wall * creates the adam's apple (larger in men than women and has less fat pad lying over it therefore it protrudes more in men)

Answer 60

* small leaf-shaped cartilage that projects upward behind the tongue and hyoid bone * attached below to thyroid cartilage * has a free superior border that can flex to move up and down during swallowing to prevent food or liquids from entering trachea * covered with nonkeratinized strategied squamous epithelium

Answer 61

* pyramind shaped * the **most important** of the paired laryngeal cartilages * base articulates with superior border of cricoid cartilage * anterior angles serve as points of attachment for the vocal folds

Answer 62

**Intrinsic muscles:** * have both their origin and insertion on the larynx * important in controlling vocal fold length and tension * regulates shape of laryngeal inlet **Extrinsic muscles:** * insert on the larynx but have origina on some other structure (therefore, contraction of the extrinsic muscles actually moves or displaces the larynx as a whole) \***both:** play important roles in respiration, vocalization, and swalloing

Answer 63

* aka windpipe **Structure:** * tube ~11cm (4.5 inches; 2.5cm wide) long extending from larynx in neck to primary bronchi in the thoracic cavity * outside of tracheal wall covered with **fibrous adventitia** * smooth muscles in C-shaped rings of cartilage make up tracheal wall (and additional elastic fibers in the posterior wall) * ^ rings are incomplete posteriorly - gives firmness to wall (prevents collapsing/shutting off vital airway) but also allows esophagus to expand as food moves toward stomach during swallowing * lined with respiratory mucosa (ciliated pseduostratified columnar epithelium) with gobley cells in mucous glands creating mucus

Answer 64

* furnishes part of open passageway through which air can reach lungs from the outside (simple but VITAL function)

Answer 65

tracheostomy

Answer 66

* trachea divides into two **primary bronchi** (right slightly larger and more vertical than the left) * structurally similar to trachea (icomplete cartilaginous rings in sections above the lungs, but complete rings in sections within the lungs) * lined wtih ciliated mucosa * enters lungs and immediately divides into **secondary bronchi** ⇒ **tertiary bronchi** ⇒ **bronchioles** and continue branching until **terminal bronchioles** * trachea + 2 primary bronchi + their branches = **bronchial tree** * 23 levels of branchings - optimum ability to transfer oxygen to pulmonary blood * cartilagenous rings become irregular and disappear as it divides into small bronchioles

Answer 67

terminal bronchioles

Answer 68

respiratory bronchies ⇒ alveolar ducts ⇒ alveolar sacs (which contain alveoli)

Answer 69

300 million alveoli in total (both lungs)

Answer 70

* spongelike structure * extremely thin-walled (single layer of simple squamous epithelial tissue) * lies in contact with blood capillaries * millions of alveoli in each lung

Answer 71

* very effective in changing CO₂ and O₂ (due to thin walled, beside blood capillaries, and millions of alveoli in lungs)

Answer 72

respiratory membrane Barrier consists of alveolar epithelium, capillary endothelium, and their joined basement membranes

Answer 73

* surfactant * structural interdependence of all the connected alveoli (they exert pull on each other to keep them all open)

Answer 74

The layer of protective mucus covering a large portion of the membrane lining the respiratory tree (125+ mL of resp mucus produced daily) * creates a continuous sheet (**mucus blanket**) * cilia moves the mucus upwards from bronchial tree to pharynx (to clear toxin molecules from the airway)

Answer 75

True. upwards towards pharynx (to get it out of airway)

Answer 76

* Toxins can paralyze cilia causing the ciliary escalator to gradually fail * accumulations of mucus trigger typical smoker's cough (effort to clear secretions)

Answer 77

* Processing of incoming air * conducts air to and from lungs * vocalization and phonation * olfaction

Answer 78

* Conducts air between atmosphere and pharynx * Warms, humidifies, and cleans inspired air

Answer 79

immune protection of respiratory and digestive mucosa

Answer 80

* cone-shaped organs * extend from diaphragm to just slightly above clavicles, and lie against ribs both anteriorly and posteriorly * medial surface of each lung is more concave to allow room for other structures (like heart) - more concave on L because of this

Answer 81

**Base:** broad inferior surface of lung, which rests on diaphragm **Apex:** pointed upper margin, projects above clavicle

Answer 82

* divided into lobes by fissures * oblique fissure is present in both lungs * R lung has horizontal fissure separating superior and middle lobe * Left lung - partially divided into two lobes (superior and inferior) * right lung - three lobes (superior, middle, and inferior)

Answer 83

**bronchopulmonary segments** * has a lot of tubes of increasingly smaller diameter that make up bronchial tree and serve as air distributors

Answer 84

**Visceral:** cover the outer surfaces of the lungs and adheres to them **Parietal:** lines the entire thoracic cavity; aheres to the internal surface of the ribs and superior surface of the diaphragm; partitions off mediastinum

Answer 85

**1) air distribution** (by the bronchial tree) **2) gas exchange** (via alveoli)

Answer 86

* has three divisions separated from one another by partitions of **pleura** * contains the lungs * space between the lungs is occupied by esophagus, trachea, large blood vessels, and heart

Answer 87

Pleural space (a potential space) that contains just enough pelural fluid for lubrication So when lungs inflate with air, the smooth, moist visceral pleura coheres to smooth moist parietal pleura (to avoid friction and painful respirations)

Answer 88

pleura is inflamed causing respirations to become painful

Answer 89

* **respiration** - elliptical shape of ribs and their attachment angle allows thorax to become larger when chest is raised and smaller when lowered * diaphragm also contributes to thoracic volume - when diaphragm contracts, flattens out and pulls floor of thoracic cavity down (thus enlarges thoracic volume); when it returns to its resting, domelike shape, thoracic volume is reduced

Answer 90

* ribs and sternum become more fixed and less able to expand during inspiration * respiratory muscles are less effective * Hb levels are often reduced

Answer 91

any infection localized in the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract (nose, pharynx, and larynx)

Answer 92

* inflammation of the mucosa of the nasal cavity * commonly caused by viral infection * colder temps in nasal cavity during winter allow rhinoviruses (that cause common cold) to replicate more quickly (which increases common cold cases in the cold) * can also be caused by nasal irritants, allergic reaction to airborne allergens * **Sx:** excessive mucus production that drips down into throat and lower resp tract leading to sore throat, coughing, upset stomach, sneeze reflex * **Treatment:** remove factor, rest, use of antihistamines, decongestants

Answer 93

* inflammation/infection of the pharynx * aka "sore throat" * often due to viral invasion * **includes strep throat -** sore throat, redness, difficulty swallowing * **Treatment:** throat lozenges, rest, fluids, antibiotics (if more severe)

Answer 94

* inflammation of the mucous lining of larynx * characterized by edema of vocal folds resulting in hoarseness (dysphonia) or loss of voice * **Causes:** infections, toxic inhalation, endotracheal intubation, vocal abuse, alcohol infestion * may lead to croup * **Treatment:** conservative (limit talking)

Answer 95

A rare but more severe and rapidly progressive viral form of laryngeal edema that needs medical treatment due to potential for airway obstruction

Answer 96

* inflammation of one or more masses of lymphatic tissue embedded in the mucous membrane of the pharynx * most cases is inflammation of palatine tonsils (in oropharynx) and pharyngeal tonsils/adenoids (in nasopharynx) * **Tx:** antibiotics, tonsillectomy

Answer 97

because upper respiratory mucosa is continuous with mucous lining of the sinuses, eustachian tube (auditory tube), middle ear, and lower respiratory tract (which allows infections to spread)

Answer 98

* displacement of nasal septum from midline of nasal cavity, may cause nasal obstruction * common problem with deviated septum is snoring

Answer 99

* condition where during sleep, there are periods of complete cessation of breathing * periods of apnea are characterized by restlessness and often end in a loud "snort" before a normal breathing pattern resums * can cause excessive daytime sleepiness and other sx related to chronic lack of oxygen

Answer 100

* condition characterized by acute inflammation of tracheobronchial tree (most commonly caused by infection) * prevalent in winter * predisposing factors: chilling, fatigue, malnutrition, and exposure to air pollutants * excessive fluid accumulates in bronchi * Sx: nonproductive cough, potential malaise, fever, back and muscle pain, and sore throat * Tx: rest, cough suppresants

Answer 101

* common condition characterized by acute inflammation of the lungs * alveoli and bronchi may become swolln and plugged with mucous secretions * pus forms in bacterial pneumonia * **aspiration pneumonia:** lung infections caused by inhalation of vomit or other infective material (common in acute alcohol intoxication and as a complication of anesthesia) * Sx of pneumonia: high fever, chills, headache, cough, chest pain, leukocytosis, hypoxia * Tx: antimicrobrial drugs, oxygen, removal of secretions

Answer 102

* chronic bacillus infection caused by *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* * highly contagious, transmitted via airborne mechanisms * inflammatory lesions (tubercles) form around colonies of TB bacteria in the lung and produce sx of cough, fatigue, chest pain, weight loss, and fever * TB progression leads to lung hemorrhage and dyspnea * can lead to scar tissue and reduced lung volume and restrictive lung disease * can spread to other systems/organs * tx: antimicrobials

Answer 103

* malignancy of pulmonary tissue that destroys gas-exchange tissues and may also invade other body parts * most often develops in damaged or diseased lungs (most common: cigarette smoking; other causes: asbestos, chromium, coal products, petroleum products, rust, ionizing radiation) * Tx: surgery (removing lung or lobe); chemo; radiation therapy

Answer 104

* term for "breathing" * involves inspiration (moves air into lungs) and expiration (moves air out of lungs)

Answer 105

This means that a fluid moves from the area where its pressure is higher to the area where its pressure is lower (with re: flow of air in pulmonary airways)

Answer 106

Both are 760mmHg explains why at that moment, air is neither entering nor leaving the lungs

Answer 107

air moves from atmosphere into lungs (inspiration)

Answer 108

air moves out of lungs into atmosphere (expiration)

Answer 109

size of thoracic cavity, which is produced by contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles

Answer 110

volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure at constant temp can be applied to expansion of the thorax (increase in volume) resulting in decreased intrapleural (intrathoracic) pressure ⇒ leads to decreased intralaveolar pressure ⇒ causes air to move from outside into lungs

Answer 111

volume is directly proportional to temperature (V ∝ T) when pressure is constant Application to ventilations: during inspiration, air expands in volume as it is warmed by respiratory mucosa

Answer 112

* the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressure of each individual gas * aka the law of partial pressures * Application to ventilations: used to determined partial pressure of oxygen (Po₂) in air

Answer 113

* the concentration of a gas in a solution depends on the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility, as long as temperature remains constant * application: explains how plasma concentration of a gas such as oxygen relates to its partial pressure

Answer 114

respiratory cycle

Answer 115

* deficiency of surfactant in premature infants (because surfactant formation is not fully underway until 7th or 8th month of prenatal development) * lack of surfactant decreases lung compliance, causing preemie to try and inflate alveoli by increasing effort of inspiratory muscles (which may eventually cause death by exhaustion) - known as **respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)** * treatment: * CPAP - artifically inflates baby's lungs and maintains enough pressure during expiration to prevent collapse (to relieve baby's inspiratory muscles) * artificial surfactant

Answer 116

* **contraction of the diaphragm alone** (descends to make thoracic cavity longer) OR * **^ and contraction of external intercostal muscles** (pulls anterior end of each rib up and out; also elevates attached sternum and enlarges thorax from front to back, side to side)

Answer 117

sternocleidomastoid pectoralis minor external intercostals

Answer 118

* negative intrapleural pressure is required to overcome "collapse tendency" of the lungs caused by surface tension of fluid lining the alveoli and the stretch of elasti fibers that are constantly attempting to recoil * difference (P_IP - P_A) is called **transpulmonary pressure** (which must always be negative to maintain inflation of the lungs)

Answer 119

the volume of air exhaled normally after a typical inspiration at rest in an adult: ~500mL (0.5L)

Answer 120

the largest additional volume of air that can be forcibly expired after expiring tidal air avg: 1000-1200mL (1 to 1.2L)

Answer 121

amount of air that can be forcibly inspired over and above a normal inspiration Normaly IRV: ~3300mL (3.3 L)

Answer 122

amount of air that cannot be forcibly expired and remains trapped in the alveoli ~1200mL (1.2L) between breaths, oxygen and CO2 exchange occurs between the trapped residual air in the alveoli and blood to help "level off" the amounts of oxygen and Co2 in the blood during breathing cycle

Answer 123

residual volume is eliminated when the lung collapses BUT there is still a little bit of trapped air left called **minimal volume** which is about 40% of the RV

Answer 124

max amount of air an individual can inspire after nromal expiration IC = TV + IRV

Answer 125

amount of air left in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration (without contracting expiratory muscles) FRC = ERV + RV ~2200 - 2400 mL (2.2-2.4L)

Answer 126

the total volume of air a lung can hold TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

Answer 127

* volume of inspired air that actually reaches or "ventilates" the alveoli * only this volume of air takes part in gas exchange (because a portion of air does not descend into any alveoli and therefore is not involved in this) * alveolar ventilation volume = TV - dead space volume

Answer 128

* **Anatomical dead space:** the large air passageways that contains the "dead air" (i.e. the air that does not ventilate the alveoli but fills our air passageways) - ~30% of the TV * **Alveolar dead space:** when some alveoli are not able to perform gas exchange and therefore also "dead space" * both of those^ make us **physiological dead space**

Answer 129

* increases the amount of dead space air/physiological dead space * so alveolar ventilation decreases which decreases oxygen getting to the blood aka inadequate air-blood gas exchange

Answer 130

**volume moved per minute** (at rest ~6000mL) TV (ml/cycle) x RR (cycles per min) = Total minute volume 500 ml/cycle x 12 breaths/min = 6000 mL

Answer 131

* represents amount of oxygen taken up by the lungs, transported to the tissues, and used to do work * predictor of a peron's capacity to do aerobic exercise * largely determined by herditary factors, but aerobic training can increase it by up to 35%

Answer 132

* can determine presence of respiratory obstruction by measuring volume of air expired per second during forced expiration * volume forcefully expired during first second (FEV1) ~83% of VC * volume forcefully expired during first 2 seconds (FEV2) ~94% of VC * volume forcefully expired by end of 3rd second (FEV3) ~97% of VC

Answer 133

* the idea behind this is to increase efficiency by detouring blood flow away from poorly ventilated alveoli towards well-ventilated alveoli so that blood flow doesn't get wasted * done by vasoconstraction of certain pulmonary arterioles to reduce perfusion to poorly ventilated alveoli

Answer 134

**medullary rhythmicity area** * consists of two centers: dorsal resp group (DRG) and ventral resp group (VRG) * DRG integrates info from chemoreceptors for PCO2 and signals VRG to alter breathing rhythm to restore homeostasis

Answer 135

* previously known as pneumotaxic center * in the pons * may regulate both the apneustic center and medullary rhythmicity area

Answer 136

* describes an involuntary, spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm * contraction generally occurs at the beginning of an inspiration * glottis suddenly closes producing a characteristic sound * may be produced by irritaiton of the phrenic nerve or sensory nerves in he stomach; direct injury or pressure on certain areas of the brain

Answer 137

* stimulated by foreign matter in the trachea or bronchi * epiglottis and glottis reflexively close * contraction of expiratory muscles cause air pressure in lungs to increase * epiglottis and glottis then open suddenly, resulting in upward burst of air to remove contaminants

Answer 138

* similar to cough reflex except stimulated by contaminants in the nasal cavity * burst of air is directed through the nose and mouth, forcing contaminants (and mucus) out of respiratory tract

Answer 139

* slow deep inspiration through an unusually widened mouth * several theories for cause: thought to be done to prepare muscles and circulatory system for action; that it cools the brain (to regulate body temp); potentially triggered by NT related to mood

Answer 140

* protective physiological response to cold water immersion * the colder the water, the better chance of survival * immediate shunting of blood to core body areas with peripheral vasoconstraction and bradycardia; slowed metabolism and decreased tissue requirements fo oxygen and nutrients

Answer 141

* impulses to respiratory center from motor area of cerebrum may either increase or decrease rate and strengths of respirations (i.e. person can voluntarily speed up/slow down RR) * voluntary control is limited though (because holding breath will cause increase in CO2 which will stimulate respirations)

Answer 142

* **central chemoreceptors** in the brain * sensitive to ongoing changes in pH that is diff than peripheral chemoreceptor sensitivity * CO₂ crossing the BBB is not buffered by CSF or IF (different than in the blood where it can be buffered) * best at detecting LT changes in CO₂ rather than rapid changes in CO₂/pH * therefore respond to high CSF PCO₂ and/or low CSF pH * **peripheral chemoreceptors** in peripheral sensory nerves in carotid bodies and aorta * stimulated by large increases in arterial PCO₂, low PO₂, low plasma pH * responds to rapid changes * results in faster breathing

Answer 143

* inhibition of central and peripheral chemoreceptors leading to inhibition of medullary rhythicity area and slower respirations

Answer 144

* decrease in arterial blood PO₂ may stimulate chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies and cause reflex stimulation of the inspiratory neurons of the medullary rhythmicity area * makes a "backup" respiratory control mechanism * \***note:** Po₂ does not regulative respirations under normal conditions

Answer 145

* reflex that also helps control respirations (depth and rhythmicity when TV is high) * on large TV inspired: expansion of lungs stimulate stretch receptors that send inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory neuron ⇒ relaxation of inspiratory muscles occur ⇒ expiration follows Hering-Breuer expiratory reflex * on large TV expired: lungs are delated to inhibit lung stretch receptors and allow inspiration to start again (Hering-Breuer inspiratory reflex)

Answer 146

* **sudden painful stimulation** - produces reflex apnea, but continued pinful stimuli cause faster and deeper respirations * **sudden cold stimuli** - applied to skin cause reflex apnea * **stimulation of pharynx or larynx** - by irritating chemicals or by touch causes temporary apnea (choking apnea - prevents aspiration of food or liquids during swallowing)

Answer 147

* respirations increase abruptly at the beginning of exercise and decrease markedly as it ends * unknown mechanism (changes in arterial blood PCO2, PO2, and pH are not enough to produce the degree of hyperpnea observed)

Answer 148

**Obstructive:** obstruction of airways (such as bronchial constriction); may obstruct inspiration and expiration **Restrictive:** restriction of alveoli, reduced compliance, leading to decreased lung inflation; typically restricts inspiration

Answer 149

* "crib death" * occurs most commonly in babies with no obvious medical problems who are younger than 3 months * exact cause unknown

Answer 150

True. inspired air is not part of the internal environment (as the airways are merely inward extensions of the external environment and have not crossed the barrier ie the respiratory membrane, into the body yet)

Answer 151

pressure exerted by any one gas in a mix of gases or in a liquid

Answer 152

78% nitrogen 21% oxygen 1% CO₂& other gases

Answer 153

1) oxygen diffuses down its pressure gradient (moving from alveolar air to blood because PO₂in alveolar air is \> PO₂ of incoming blood) 2) CO₂exits from the blood by diffusing down the CO₂ pressure gradient out into alveolar air (PCO₂ of venous blood is bit higher than PCO₂ in alveolar air) \*note that alveolar partial ressures stay relatively the same/constant whereas the partial pressures of gases in blood change to equilibrate with alveolar partial pressures (this is because alveoli are continually ventilated)

Answer 154

* principle that describes diffusion of CO₂ and oxygen across respiratory membrane * **net gas diffusion rate across a fluid membrane is proportional to the membrane SA, gas solubility in the membrane, partial pressure difference; inversely proportional to membrane thickness** * each gas diffuses more efficiently if SA is large, if membrane thickness is small, if solubility of gas is high, and if partial pressure gradient is high

Answer 155

arterial blood: 97% venous blood: 75%

Answer 156

1) oxygen diffuses out of arterial blood into interstitial fluid/intracellular fluid because arterial blood PO₂ is ~100mHg and IF/ICF is lower (pressure varies)

Answer 157

* right shift of oxygen-Hb dissociation curve resulting from increased PCO₂ (Bohr effect) * when increased PCO₂ decreases the addinity between Hb and oxygen

Answer 158

refers to increased total CO₂ loading caused by decrease in PO₂ ## Footnote (decreased plasma PO2 commonly observed in systemic tissues increases the CO2 content of the blood, shown as a left shift of the CO2 dissociation curve)

ANATOMY - Term Test 3 (Respiratory System) Flashcards

(187 cards)