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Animal Behavior Final Flashcards

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1
Q

Optimal Diet Model Assumptions

A

1) foragers must maximize fitness by maximizing energy intake
2) Food items are encountered one at a time and in proportion to their abundance
3) all food items in the environment can be ranked according to their profitability

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2
Q

Why are the ODM assumptions better predictors for the diets of animals with immobile prey?

A

there is more variation among prey encounter rates and capture success with mobile prey compared to immobile

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3
Q

What assumption is shared by the ODM and patch-use model?

A

foragers want to maximize their energy intake rate

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4
Q

what is the zero-one rule?

A

the prediction that each food type should either always be eaten or always rejected when found

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5
Q

A researcher examines the hunting success of a visual predator as it searches for cryptic prey. She finds that a foragers hunting success increases over time. What can explain this observation?

A

the forager formed a search image (knows exactly what the cryptic prey will look like)

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6
Q

how is the profitability of a food item calculated?

A

E/h
E = energy gained from item
h = handling time

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7
Q

the size of a group often increases after a predator is spotted. What anti predator benefit best explains this observation?

A

safety in numbers - as group size increases, each individual is safer due to the dilution effect

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8
Q

What are the findings of Shora et al (2018) regarding diet and welfare in zoo-housed species such as coatis?

A

Being provided whole food resulted in significantly less infraspecific aggression compared to when the animals received chopped food
whole food = good!

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9
Q

Explain why the fitness of the scrounger strategy declines declines as their frequency increases in a group

A

more scroungers means less producers and less food available for each individual

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10
Q

What is involved in the foraging trade-off between the probability of being killed by a predator and risk of starvation?

A

Food carrying: as distance between food patch and safety increases -> less likely to carry food items to safety

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11
Q

The selfish herd hypothesis predicts that individuals should do what?

A

Continuously adjust their position in the group and place others between themselves and predators

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12
Q

In some species, individuals behave in ways that make them more apparent to a predator. Why would this be beneficial? What theories explain this?

A

it could annoy the predator enough that it leaves or deter it from attacking since its been spotted

Pursuit deterrence hypothesis:
making oneself more noticeable to a predator = alert predator that you see them -> informs them they have been detected and that their pursuit will not be successful

Alarm signal hypothesis:
warn nearby conspecifics of danger

ex: tail flagging in deer

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13
Q

explain how the dilution effect differs from selfish herd hypothesis

A

dilution effect means individuals need to scan less due to more individuals present whereas the selfish herd hypothesis means moving oneself around in the group and placing others between you and a predator to avoid being the first one caught

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14
Q

identify the unique predictions of the pursuit deterrence hypothesis and alarm signal hypothesis

A

pursuit deterrence:
- inform predator they are detected
- should occur more often as the distance between the predator and prey increases

alarm signal:
- inform conspecifics of danger
- signaling should be more common when kin are nearby

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15
Q

why does migration occur?

A

migrate during specific seasons in search of food/water or mating reasons

internal factors: annual rhythms and associated physiological changes
external factors: changes in photoperiod and local environmental conditions

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16
Q

describe the differences between orientation and navigation. formulate an experiment that would allow you to determine these capabilities in a species.

A

orientation: maintaining the proper directions of travel
navigation: determining how to reach a particular location

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17
Q

describe the difference between ornaments and weapons. in which sex do these traits most often appear?

A

weapons: used in fights within the same gender to win a sexual partner
ornaments: morphological, acoustic, chemical, or behavioral features to attract sexual partners

males

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18
Q

define a sex role reversed species and provide one example. what conditions are required for the evolution of such a species?

A

females exhibit high level of territorial defense and aggression while males provide high levels of parental care
ex: seahorses

favored in resource poor environments or where predation on offspring is high

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19
Q

under what conditions would you expect sexual selection to be more intense on females than males?

A

selection will favor mating systems that provide the greatest resources:

monogamy: if sexual partner provides high levels of resources for young
polyandry: multiple males provide care for her offspring

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20
Q

describe the predictions of Bateman’s hypothesis with respect to males and females

A

1) males have higher variation in reproductive success (male-male competition)
2) males reproductive success is limited by the number of completed mating obtained
3) female reproductive success is limited by the number of eggs the female produces

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21
Q

Polygyny

A

males have sole access to several females, females share one male
ex: feral horses

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22
Q

Polyandry

A

males share one female, females have stolen access yo several males
ex: European badgers

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23
Q

monogamy

A

males have sole access to one female, females have sole access to one male
ex: california mouse

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24
Q

promiscuity

A

males have access to many females, females have access to many females (no bonds)

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25
in polygynous vs. monogamous mating systems, which would you expect to have the highest intensity sexual selection amongst males and why?
Monogamy because males stay with their single mate and offspring for life and need to make sure they are the fittest
26
in the study in warblers, what is mate guarding and did the results of the study support or not support its effectiveness.
mate guarding: males maintain close proximity to their mate during the fertile period in attempt to deter other males it was effective in reducing the risk of extra pair fertilization
27
how did Rodd and colleagues (2002) evaluate the sensory bias hypothesis in guppies?
by examaning the color preference of both males and females
28
what differentiates intersexual competition from intrasexual competition? provide an example of each.
intersexual competition: when one sex chooses which members of the opposite sex to mate with (ex: males form a lek to display to females) intrasexual competition: when members of the same sex compete for mates (ex: males compete with eachother for mating with a female)
29
what does beluga sexual play look like? do they have preferences with whom they play?
genital rubbing, thrusting, s posturing, ventral present, riding, erection 1st year: prefer to play with their mother and other male calves 2nd year: begin to diversify who they play with 3rd year: prefer to play with other calves and adult males
30
in elephant seals, a male competes with other males while defending several families with whom he mates. What term best describes this social mating system?
polygyny
31
hotspot hypothesis
all males can benefit from aggregating in a location where they are likely to encounter many females (ex: peafowl)
32
hotshot hypothesis
low-ranking males can benefit by aggregating around high-ranking males because females are more likely to visit attractive males (ex: little bustard)
33
how can you tests if a given species follows the hotspot or hotshot hypothesis?
remove the hotshot from a lek: - if attractiveness falls to other males and females = species follows hotshot - if other males begin to settle on lek still = species follows hotspot
34
You discover a new species of bird and observe that males defend similar-sized territories early in the breeding season and that females then settle in these territories. on some male territories, only one female settles to breed, while on others, multiple females settle and breed. how would you best classify this mating system?
polygyny
35
direct material benefits
material resources received by a female from mating with a male ex: nuptial gifts, territory, parental care
36
indirect benefits
increase genetic fitness of offspring ex: new genes
37
social monogamy is rare in mammals but common in birds. What difference is hypothesized to explain this observation?
birds need for biparental care
38
Hamilton-zuck hypothesis and predictions
parasites and pathogens play an important role in sexual selection while secondary sexual traits are costly and condition dependent predictions: 1) females should prefer males with the greatest expression of secondary sexual traits 2) high parasite loads will reduce that expression in males
39
peackock Hamilton-zuck hypothesis example
elaborate trains with more eyespots = more mates - females can learn information from high spot counts such as if the male has good genes, parasite load, and disease resistance - more ornaments = pathogen/disease resistance
40
in what situation can cryptic female choice enhance the fitness of a female?
when mating with males that differ in quality
41
5 proposed adaptive categories for sociosexual behavior
1) can act as social glue 2) regulates conflict 3) act as practice for younger animals 4) kin selection 5) indirect insemination
42
what does research on mating systems in various reed warbler species tell us about the development of different mating systems?
- resource abundance affects mating systems (scarce = monogamy, abundant = polygyny) - females invest in care regardless while males vary
43
what features distinguish promiscuity from polygynandry
promiscuity has no social bonds while polygynandry does
44
polygynandry example
chimps/bonobos
45
promiscuity example
red squirrels
46
What 2 factors promote female aggregation in polygyny?
1) aggregate for reasons other than reproduction - female defense polygyny: single male monopolizes and mates with 2+ females 2) distribution of resources in the environment - resource defense polygyny: male defends resources and mates with multiple females attracted to the resources
47
life-history tradeoff
effort allocated toward reproduction reduces effort that can be used toward an individuals own growth/survival - taxa with longer lifespans provide more parental care
48
what is predicted by sexual conflict theory?
the sex with the higher cost of parental care should provide less care
49
what factor effected the level of care in male blue footed boobies?
paternity
50
What factors drive female biased parental care?
females have greater certainty of offspring being theirs than males and typically have more at risk overall
51
what conditions cause male biased parental care?
certainly the offspring is theirs high predation risks
52
brood reduction
the death of some siblings as a result of reduced parental care for the purpose of enhancing the fitness of surviving sibling adaptive: if costs of care exceed benefits of providing care = should cease to provide care
53
brood reduction example
fur seals: - lactation is costly + usually 2 pups to feed - water temps determine food abundance (cold = good, warm = bad) - cold water years make it easier to care for two pups while warm water years are harder = better to brood reduct in warm years
54
brood parasitism
a female (brood parasite) lays an egg in the nest of another female ex: cuckoo - parasites different species by producing eggs similar is appearance to the host bird
55
how do risk-sensitive foraging strategies manifest in a population of foragers
hunger: satiated foragers = risk aversive hungry foragers = risk prone prey type: immobile prey = faster/easier to catch = less prone to risks mobile prey = longer/harder to catch = more prone to risks
56
costs and benefits of mobbing behavior
costs: can risk being attacked and killed benefits: can annoy predator enough that it leaves
57
what sorts of environments might favor mobbing behaviors?
areas with more coverage as the prey is less vulnerable while mobbing
58
what two factors explain why male-only care is common in fish?
1) increased level of certainty in paternity (external fertilization) 2) better for females to spend time foraging as they increase in fertility with size = more offspring if they can eat and get bigger (indeterminate growth)
59
what are the 2 proposed hypotheses for tail-flagging in deer? what was the new hypothesis found from the study?
1) tail flagging should occur very rarely among solitary prey 2) should be commonly seen in groups of prey new: flash disappearance hypothesis = sudden disappearance of a bright target makes it difficult or the predator to locate its prey and thus encourages it to give up its attack
60
what factor is hypothesized to effect the degree of brood reduction in species with hatch asynchrony?
level of food resources
61
one benefit to brood parasitism is reduced parental care. How might this affect a brood parasite relative to a species that is not?
brood parasites have higher reproduction
62
why is female-biased care more common?
females have more at stake
63
parental investment
any investment by the parents that increases an individual offsprings chance of survival, while at the cost of the ability to invest in other offspring
64
one prediction of parent-offspring conflict theory in regards to the level of care provided to current and future offspring
parents should maximize their lifetime reproductive fitness, while offspring should maximize the energy and protection they currently receive from their parents to survive to reproductive age
65
how can brood reduction enhance the fitness of a parent?
they don't have to spend as much time and energy taking care of an offspring and can use it take take care on themselves
66
how long should an animal stay in a patch to maximize net energy gain
marginal value theorem: a forager should stay in a patch until its marginal benefit of feeding declines to equal the average energy intake rate from the environment short travel times = small optimal patch time long travel times = long optimal patch time costs: energy, predication risks, missed opportunity costs
67
is ballooning a behavior?
ballooning is a behavior as it is in response to a stimulus
68
what information is included in an ethogram?
species specific behavior describing the elements and function of each behavior operational definitions structure: physical properties of the behavior function: contact/attention seeking behavior
69
what criticism is present regarding anthropomorphically thinking about animal behavior?
it can dismiss the possibility of animals having emotions
70
proximate questions
what produces a behavior and how is the behavior produced
71
ultimate questions
how the behavior affects fitness and how it evolved
72
what data indicates dogs do not feel guilty when they disobey?
mean number of guilty look behavior was similar wether or not the dog ate the treat (disobeyed)
73
three R's
replacement: methods that avoid or replace the use of animals reduction: using/working with less animals refinement: modification of husbandry or experimental procedures to minimize pain/distress and enhance welfare
74
Parent-offspring regression analysis can be used to determine what?
heritability of phenotypic traits
75
predictions of multilevel selection theory
natural selection favoring simultaneously individuals and groups w/ some instances where selection is stronger on the group or the individual
76
modes of natural selection
1) directional = 1 extreme 2) disruptive = 2 extremes 3) stabilizing = intermediate value favored
77
sexual selection
acts on heritable traits that affect reproduction
78
why do individuals have differences in their behavior?
1) genetic composition 2) environmental conditioning 3) learning 4) variation in traits may lead to similar fitness 5) frequency-dependent selection can maintain different traits in a population
79
parent-offspring regression analysis
examines similarity between parents and their offspring in terms of the traits they possess. if a trait has a genetic basis, then the trait values of offspring should be similar to the trait values of their parents - there should be a positive relationship between offspring and parent trait value
80
selection experiment method
different groups of individuals are subjected to differential selection on the trait in question - if artificial selection on the trait results in changes in the subsequent generations, then the trait has a genetic basis
81
3 conditions required for evolution by natural selection
1) variation exists among individuals in a population's traits 2) individuals traits are at least partially heritable 3) traits confer differences in survivorship and reproductive fitness
82
criteria to determine if a trait is adaptive
1) trait is a variation of an earlier form 2) trait is heritable through the transmission of genes 3) trait enhances reproductive fitness
83
how to study a more direct measure of fitness (praw and grant)
measure offspring or age of life
84
knockdown studies
identify major genes by reducing expressions of other genes - can be done by genetic modification or treatment
85
3 types of genetic effects that act on phenotypic variation
1) additive effects: average effect of individual alleles 2) dominance effect: interaction between alleles at one locus 3) epistasis: interaction between genes at different loci
86
umwelt
consequence of each species having its own specific perceptual environment
87
odorant vs chemical pheromones
odorants are not species specific while pheromones are
88
what did jean boal determine was the sensory mechanism for cuttlefish aggregating to communal egg masses?
cuttlefish can detect and respond to the odor of fresh eggs
89
how do birds vary across sexes in plumage color that humans can't see?
vary in ultraviolet colors
90
infrasounds
barely audible low-frequency sound that humans can't hear
91
ultrasounds
barely edible high-frequency sounds that humans can't hear
92
some noxious moths produce ultrasonic clicks that their bat predators can detect and bats learn to avoid them. This phenomenon is known as what?
acoustic aposematism
93
what evidence led Riley and colleagues to suggest that bees respond to the waggle dance rather than odor cues?
bees behaved the same no matter where they were released
94
what is the waggle dance?
a worker communicates the distance, directions and quality of a nectar fish flower patch to fellow bees
95
two different prey species react to the urine scent of a predator. What can be concluded?
the urine is a general odorant
96
eavesdropping vs audience effect
eavesdropping has no effect on a signaler while the audience effect does
97
what three conditions favor the evolution of signals as accurate indicators of conditions
1) fitness interests of signaler and receiver are similar 2) signal cannot be faked (specific to physiology) 3) costly to produce or maintain
98
different signal types
chemical visual/morphological auditory tactile magneto-reception: detect and orient to magnetic fields electroreception: detect weak electric fields
99
interaction type with more inaccurate signal use
interspecific interactions (prey vs. predator)
100
habituation
behavioral response that results from repeated stimulation an that does not involve sensory adaptation/fatigue or motor fatigue ex: squirrels on campus = used to humans
101
sensitization
when the repeated presentation of a particular significant stimulus lowers the threshold for elicitation of appropriate behavior to the point where a second stimulus is not normally able to call forth a behavior now does ex: dog clicker salivating
102
habituation vs sensitization
habituation = decreased response with repeated exposure sensitization = increasingly strong response with repeated exposure
103
what data allowed Jennifer Clarke to conclude that hens teach chicks?
strong relationship between plants near where mothers produced food calls and the diet of chicks
104
social learning
requires a behavior to be learned through some form of social transmission and persist even in the absence of a teacher
105
social facilitation
does not reqire the participants to learn something new or continue the behavior in the future
106
animal teaching
- teacher is aware: modify behavior in presence of naive individuals - teacher should not immediately benefit from modifying their behavior: benefit is shown for the learner usually at a cost to the teacher (long-term payoff for teachers) - leaner must learn behavior they would not have or learn it faster/earlier bc of teacher
107
ants ex animal teaching
lead another ant from the nest to food with signals between both ants controlling speed an course of the run
108
conceptual confusion
different observers have different ideas of what a behavior looks like
109
Edlund observe vs. infer vs. behavior
observe behavior -> infer mental state context is needed to determine actual mental state of animal and use of the behavior
110
how did intelligence evolve in the octopus
primarily in response to [predation and complex feeding contexts
111
what role does heritability serve in stereotypical behavior and feather picking on amazon parrots?
feather picking = heritable stereotypical behavior = socially influenced
112

Animal Behavior (1 decks)

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