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BIOS 1108 Module 2 > Animal Development > Flashcards

Animal Development Flashcards

1
Q

4 stages of Animal Development

A
  1. Fertilization
  2. Cleavage
  3. Gastrulation
  4. Organogenesis
    then growth!
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2
Q

Fertilization, Cleavage, Gastrulation, Organogenesis basics

A

Fertilization - egg and sperm fusion
cleavage - zygote subdividing and determinants partitioned in blastomere (body plan); cell division with no intermediate growth - fast division
gastrulation - germ layers
organogenesis - organs forming, cell interacting and differentiating

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3
Q

acrosome and mitochondria in sperm

A

acrosome: head of sperm; releases digestive enzymes that destroy the jelly layer/zona pellucida for sperm to reach egg
mitochondria: lots of mitochondria, need the energy to move to fertilize

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4
Q

jelly layer/zona pellucida in mammals

A

glycoproteins that release chemoattractants to guide sperm to eggs

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5
Q

yolk

A

nutrients to support growth of developing embryo

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6
Q

vitalline envelope

A

separates the egg from zona pellucida/jelly layer; outside of cell’s plasma membrane

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7
Q

cortical granules

A

vesicles that hold enzymes that will degrade the proteins that hold the vitalline envelope around the plasma membrane when fertilization occurs

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8
Q

Events in Fertilization (8)

A
  1. sperm binds to jelly layer
  2. initates acrosome reaction - chewing up jelly layer
  3. allows sperm-egg membrane fusion (bindin on sperm and bindin receptors n eggs)
  4. membrane fusion leads to egg membrane depolarization as a fast block to stop further fusion of sperms
  5. depolarization induces Ca2+ wave (triggers formation of fertilization envelope)
  6. induces cortical reaction
    7.degrades bindin receptors and bindin proteins on sperm and causes vitelline membrane to lift and form fertilization envelope (slow block)
  7. egg activation - egg recognizes fertilizaation has occured - DNA fusion of eggs? and intiates development
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9
Q

cleavage cell division

A

the whole embryo stays the same size, individual cells are getting smaller because its dividing

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10
Q

cleavage results in

A

blastomeres (the actual small cells, mass of cells)
–blastula: when cleavage is completed; embryo of 100+ blastumeres - a spherical layer of blasteomeres considered to be the first embryonic tissue (below)
blastoderm (first tissue) - surrounds a fluid-filled, yolk-filled (below)
blastocoel (first cavity)
establishment of body axes (first division in protostomes and much later in clceavafe for deuterosomes)

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11
Q

blastocyst

A

mammalian blastula; unlike other animals, it has an inner cell mass and outer cell layer (trophoblast) – inner cell mass becomes the embryo and trophoblast will form the embryonic portion of placenta

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12
Q

intrinsic vs extrinsic factors in cell specialization

A

intrinsic - lineage info, inherited from mother cell, present in the cytoplasm of mother cell and therefore cytoplasm of daughter cell: asymettric distribution of these fate-determinant cytoplasmic determinants can have daughter cells with different identities
extrinsic: induction, info from surrounding environment and neighboring cells

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13
Q

body axes

A

all animals except sponges
lateral-medial (left-right)
dorsal-ventral (back-belly)
anterior-posterior (head and feet)

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14
Q

cytoplasmic determinants

A

mostly protosomes/invertebrates
insects - Drosophila embryo!; assymetric distribution after first cleavage - resulting cells have different instrinsic information and different cell fates - highest concentration of bicoid in Drosophila mean head with the lowest becomes the tail/posterior SO future cell identity is set after very first cleavage division
-not mammals!

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15
Q

yolk polarity

A

animals like amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish
-asymmetrical distribution of yolk due to heaviness of yolk - in animals with large amounts of yolk
- region with less yolk becomes head while with the most becomes posterior
by the time the first cleavage comes - already established (left and right)
ventral and dorsal established where sperm entry

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16
Q

mammals body plans

A

uses induction and extrinsic information bc we have less yolk and no cytoplasmic determinants

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17
Q

splitting an egg after fertilization

A

with mammals - get identical twins!
with cytoplasmic determinants/yolk polarity: dividing too early due to the cytoplasmic determinants or yolk polarity - you get different cell fates and embryo fates!!

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18
Q

morphogenesis

A

gastrulation + organogenesis - resulting in organism’s shape and body organization

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19
Q

gastrulation results in

A

gut formation: archenteron (embryonic gut)
embryonic germ layers
APPEARANCE of major body axes - actually becomes visible

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20
Q

germ layers - embryonic tissues

A

endoderm
ectoderm
mesoderm
later differentiate into different tissues and organ systems

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21
Q

blastopore

A

invagination: group of cells move into blastocoel to form the endoderm

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22
Q

mesoderm

A

group of cells that move into the locations between the endo and ectoderm

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23
Q

archenteron

A

endodermal cells continue through interior of embry until it reaches the other side and creates a continuous tract or embryonic gut

24
Q

fate of blastopores in deuterostomes and protostomes

A

protosomes mouths
deutersomes anus

25
Q

diploplasts vs triploplasts

A

2 germ layers - radial symmetry and less tissue types vs 3 germ layers

26
Q

germ layers in relation to tissues

A

ectoderm - nervous system and epidermis
mesoderm - muscle cells and connective tissue
endoderm - columnar cells in digestive system and internal organs

27
Q

four extra-embryonic membranes from amniotes

A

germ tissues extend beyond embryo and develop into these
amnion, yolk sac, chorion, allantois

28
Q

amnion

A

membrane surrounding fluid-filled cavity to give an aqueous environment and cushions against mechanical shock;
ectoderm

29
Q

yolk sac

A

provides nutrients and blood vessels for transporting nutrients from yolk to embryo;
endoderm

30
Q

chorion

A

gas exchange between embryo and air;
mesoderm

31
Q

allantois

A

waste disposal and helps chorion with gas exchange;
endoderm?

32
Q

extraembryonic membranes in placental mammals

A

yolk sac and allantois function as part of umbilical cord
placenta - provides oxygen and nutrients to a growing baby and removes waste product

33
Q

development in placental animals

A

fertilization occurs in fallopian tube/oviducts; cleavage occurs while traveling through tube; implantation on uterine wall and gastrulation occurs after implantation

34
Q

organs and tissues

A

organs made up of 2 or more tissues
tissues: groups of similar cells that work together on specific task

35
Q

4 primary types of adult tissues

A

cells of germ layers will proliferate, migrate, and differentiate into :
epithelial tissue
connective tiissue
muscle tissue
nervous tissue

36
Q

epithelial tissues

A

tightly packed sheets that cover surfaces and form barriers
polarized: top and bottom side

37
Q

muscle tissues

A

contractile tissues that allow movements

38
Q

connective tissues

A

cells in a extracellular matrix of plasmawith solids, jelly, liquids: adipose tissue (bodyfat),bone cartilage, blood, etc; support and connect other tissues - supports organs and blood vessels - links epithelial tissues to muscles; connecting bones to nuscles

39
Q

nervous tissues

A

sensory and processing cells that transduce electrical signals or support cells that do
neurons and glia cells

40
Q

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

A

skeletal is attached to bones and voluntary; cardiac line walls of heart and are involuntary; smooth muscle are walls of blood vessels, digestive tract, uterus, bladder, and other internal structures also involuntary

41
Q

what systems do ectoderm form

A

nervous system, cornea and lens of eyes, epidermis of skin, epithelial lining of mouth and rectum

42
Q

what systems do mesoderm form

A

skeletal, circulatory, lymphatic, muscular, excretory, reproductive, dermis of skin, lining of body cavity

43
Q

endoderm derived systems

A

epithelial lining of digestive tract, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tract - liver, pancreas, parathyroids, thymus?

44
Q

5 essential developmental processes

A
  1. proliferation
  2. programmed cell death
  3. cell movement and differential expansion
  4. differentiation - cell type specific changes in gene expression
  5. induction - cell cell communication which mediates basically all other developmental processes
45
Q

epigenetics

A

how cell differentiation occurs - differences in cell types are result of expression of different genes even tho all cells share the same genome

46
Q

cell differentiation - asymmetry

A
  1. during cleavage divisions, embryonic cells become different from one another if egg contains cytoplasmic determinants - cytoplasm is heterogenous (not uniform)
  2. after cell asymmetries are set up, interactions among embryonic cells can influence fate and change gene expression: induction!
47
Q

example of organogenesis: formation of the nervous system

A

notocord forms: signals the ectoderm to fold (thicken and move to become) into a neural tube which becomes the spinal cord and brain while the notochord will disappear and become spongy discs in the vertebrae

48
Q

somites

A

from the mesoderm; lies on either side of the vertebrate neural tube; temporary structures
later development: migrate to different parts of the body to develop into bone, skeletal muscle, and connective tissue; specific pattern of induction from nearby tissues from ectodern, neural tube, notochord. surrounding mesoderm –> determines what tissue a particular region a somite will become

49
Q

morphogenesis

A

differential gene expression

50
Q

morphogens and cytoplasmic determinants with regulatory genes

A

in a concentration gradient of drosophila embryos - cytoplasmic determinants that establishes anterior-posterior gradient?
cytoplasmic determinants are often regulatory genes? that direct expression of other genes - developmental “cascade” leading to proper development of animal
regulatory genes
regulatory genes that organize cells into groups along segments; which regulate genes that organize cells into individual segments, which regulate genes that establish anterior-posterior in each segment which triggers the Hox genes which trigger the development of structures which effect the effector genes (cell death, movement, differentiation)

51
Q

Homeobox or Hox genes

A

type of regulatory genes; regulate gene expression by binding to DNA control regions like promoters and enhancers
encode transcription factors
-family of genes responsible for determining general body plan like number of body segments – each body segment is specificed by a specific comibation of Hox genes (segment identity!!) where other different body parts then develop
-all animals except sponges have this
-plants relu on Mads box (not evolutionary related)
-control identity of body parts “head architects” - have other lower tier genes for more specific instructions

52
Q

transcription factors

A

if transcription factors attach to regulatory element: go for the transcription of that set of genome? so Hox genes make those transcription factors

53
Q

misexpression hox genes

A

segments can take on new identities
misexpression of Ubx - lead to extra wings
of Antp: legs in new places - in segments its not supposed to be

54
Q

Hox genes in tetrapods and in segment identity

A

for tetrapods with forelimbs, certain combinations of hox genes will lead to different body parts compared to just one hox gene by itself

55
Q

duplication of Hox cluster

A

occurred in more than 2x in vertebrates during animal evolution - more genes mean more complex body types

56
Q

Hox genes homology

A

homologous in animal kingdom, genetic sequences and positions on chromosomes are remarably similar across most animals

57
Q

instructions of hox genes

A

“make something here” not HOW – passes the instruction to other regulatory genes which then make that animal’s version of that body part

BIOS 1108 Module 2 (5 decks)

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