antarctica

Question 1

location

Answer 1

southernmost continent, surrounding the south pole.
lies south of 60 degrees latitude, including the southern ocean

Question 2

climate

Answer 2

coldest, driest, windiest continent - extreme, harsh conditions
coldest recorded temp was -89,2 degrees C (Vostock Station, 1983)
98% covered by ice, holding roughly 70% of Earth’s freshwater
Mean summer temperatures of -2 to -2- degrees C
Mean winter temperatures of -20 to -60 degrees C

Question 3

biodiversity

Answer 3

no permanent human population
rich marine ecosystem - krill, whales, seals, penguins
home to unique populations adapted to extreme aid

Question 4

threats - climate change

Answer 4

• Antarctic Peninsula is one of the fastest warming areas on Earth.
• ice shelves like the Larsen B (5000km squared) collapsed in 2002
• West Antarctic ice sheet is thinning - could raise sea levels by 3.3m
• warming threatens krill population, affecting the food chain

Question 5

threats - fishing and whaling

Answer 5

• krill fishing increasing: krill is vital to the marine food web
• illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing is a concern
• whaling: Japan withdrew from the International Whaling Commission in 2019, resumed commercial whaling (not in Antarctica), but is a threat to conservation principles.

Question 6

mineral resource pressure

Answer 6

antarctica likely holds iron ore, coal and gas.
no mining is currently allowed (under the 1991 Madrid protocol). However, as this protocol has a review clause which allows modifications after 2048, the rising demand and tech advances increase future exploitation risk

Question 7

tourism and scientific research

Answer 7

over 100,000 tourists per year, mainly by ship
risks: pollution, wildlife disturbance, non native species introduction.
Tourist zones - mainly Antarctica peninsula (warmer, more accessible)
Research bases (eg McMurdo, Rothera) can also strain ecosystems

Question 8

sea level rise if West Antarctica melts

Answer 8

3.3 meters

Question 9

governance - antarctic treaty system

Answer 9

1959, signed by 12 nations - now has over 54 parties
Key rules:
1) no military activity
2) no nuclear testing
3) freedom for scientific research
4) no new territorial claims allowed

Question 10

governance - NGOs and monitoring

Answer 10

• Greenpeace, WWF and ASOC (Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition) monitor threats and lobby for protection
• NGOs raise awareness and apply pressure on governments and TNCs

Question 11

Madrid protocol - 1991

Answer 11

• bans all mineral resource activity for non scientific purposes
• prioritises environmental protection
• introduces environmental impact assessments
• review clause: not open to modifications until 2048

Question 12

International whaling commission

Answer 12

• 1982 Moratorium on commercial whaling
• Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary established in 1994
• some countries (eg Japan, Norway), oppose and resist full compliance

Question 13

positive outcomes of governance

Answer 13

effective international cooperation (science led, peaceful)
no large scale resource exploration yet
a model for managing global commons peacefully

Question 14

challenges of governance

Answer 14

• enforcement is weak - no formal police or military
• increasing pressure from tourism, climate change and potential mining
• political interests (eg China building more bases) suggest rising geopolitical competition