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Global Systems and Global Governance > Antarctica > Flashcards

Antarctica Flashcards

1
Q

Where is most of Antarctica located?

A

South of the Antarctic Circle

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2
Q

What is most of the continent’s coastline fringed by?

A

Ice shelves

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3
Q

Name the two largest ice sheets in Antarctica

A

The Ross Ice Shelf and the Ronne Ice Shelf

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4
Q

Where is the Ross Ice Shelf located?

A

In the Ross Sea

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5
Q

Where is the Ronne Ice Shelf located?

A

In the Weddell Sea

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6
Q

How big are the Ross and Ronne ice shelves?

A

They each cover an area greater than the British Isles

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7
Q

What happened in the spring of 2000?

A

The International Hydrographic Organization delimited a fifth world ocean

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8
Q

What is the fifth world ocean called?

A

The Southern Ocean/ Antarctic Ocean

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9
Q

What does the Southern Ocean comprise of?

A

The southernmost waters of the world, taken as being south of 60degrees S latitude

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10
Q

What does the Southern Ocean have the unique distinction of?

A

It is a large circumpolar body of water totally encircling the continent of Antarctica

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11
Q

How many degrees of longitude does the Southern Ocean encompass?

A

360 degrees of longitude

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12
Q

Where does the Southern Ocean extend to?

A

From the east coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude

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13
Q

What coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit?

A

The boundary of the Southern Ocean

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14
Q

What happens at 60 degrees south latitude?

A

The cold northward flowing waters from the Antarctic meet with warmer sub-Antarctic waters

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15
Q

What is the Antarctic Convergence zone?

A

The place where the cold northward flowing waters meet the warmer sub-Antarctic waters

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16
Q

How wide is the Antarctic Convergence zone?

A

32-48km wide

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17
Q

Why does the Antarctic Convergence zone vary in latitude and longitude?

A

It changes in latitude due to seasonal changes

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18
Q

What happens to the waters in the Antarctic Convergence zone?

A

The cold, northward flowing Antarctic waters sink beneath the sub-Antarctic waters

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19
Q

Where does upwelling occur?

A

In the Antarctic Convergence

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20
Q

What are upwelling currrents high in?

A

Marine productivity

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21
Q

What is often found in the Antarctic Convergence?

A

Antarctic krill

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22
Q

Is the Antarctic Convergence a natural boundary or an artificial one?

A

Natural

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23
Q

What three things does the Antarctic Convergence separate?

A

Two distinct hydrological regions
Areas of distinct climate
Areas of distinctive wildlife

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24
Q

What is the largest surface current in the world?

A

The Antarctic Circumpolar Current

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25
Q

Where is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current?

A

60 degrees latitude south at the Convergence Zone

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26
Q

What does the Antarctic Circumpolar Current do?

A

Blocks warmer waters travelling southwards

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27
Q

Where does the Antarctic Circumpolar Current travel?

A

It flows in an eastwards direction around Antarctica

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28
Q

What drives the Antarctic Circumpolar Current?

A

Westerly winds

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29
Q

What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current also known as?

A

The West Wind Drift

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30
Q

What is the East Wind Drift?

A

A lesser current that flows in the opposite direction to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current

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31
Q

Where does the East Wind Drift feature prominently?

A

In the Ross and Weddell Seas

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32
Q

What is the Antarctic Divergence?

A

The area where East Wind Drift and the West Wind Drift meet.

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33
Q

What percentage of the continent is covered by glacial ice?

A

97%

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34
Q

What divides the continent?

A

The Transantarctic Mountains

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35
Q

How is the continent divided?

A

East (Greater) Antarctica and West (Lesser) Antarctica

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36
Q

How high are some of the peaks on the Transantarctic Mountains?

A

4000m

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37
Q

What else do the Transantarctic Mountains separate?

A

The larger, thicker and older East Antarctic Ice Sheet and the smaller, thinner and younger West Antarctic Ice Sheet

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38
Q

Where are the Ellsworth Mountains located?

A

In West Antarctica

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39
Q

What do the Ellsworth Mountains contain?

A

The continent’s highest peak

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40
Q

What is the continent’s highest peak?

A

Mount Vinson

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41
Q

How high is Mount Vinson?

A

4892m

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42
Q

What is the average height above sea level for Antarctica? How does it compare for other continents?

A

2,300m

Antarctica is the highest continent

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43
Q

What is the average temperature for Antarctica?

A

-49 degrees C

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44
Q

What can temperatures be as low as?

A

-89 degrees C

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45
Q

What is the mean annual wind speed?

A

50mph

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46
Q

What do the high wind speeds result from?

A

The convergent katabatic winds

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47
Q

What can gales reach?

A

Up to 200mph

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48
Q

What is the mean annual precipitation?

A

Less than 50mm per annum

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49
Q

Where is precipitation the lowest?

A

In the interior

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50
Q

What type of desert is Antarctica described as?

A

A polar desert

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51
Q

What are the thick ice sheets a result of?

A

The accumulation of small inputs of snow and frost over a very long period of time

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52
Q

Is heavy snowfall responsible for the thick ice sheets?

A

No

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53
Q

What is faster: the rate of ablation or the rate of accumulation?

A

The rate of accumulation is faster than the rate of ablation in Antarctica

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54
Q

What do ice-free areas owe their existence to?

A

Specific local scale factors

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55
Q

What are nunataks?

A

Small areas of rock emerging above the ice sheets

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56
Q

Why are the tops of nunataks not covered in snow and ice?

A

High winds and steep slopes prevent snow and ice accumulating on these parts of the mountains

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57
Q

Where are dry valleys found?

A

In high altitude areas of extreme aridity

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58
Q

What is higher: the surrounding sea temperatures or the land temperature?

A

The surrounding seas have higher temperatures than the continent itself

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59
Q

What does upwelling support?

A

Phytoplankton

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60
Q

What do blooms of phytoplankton provide?

A

Food for krill

61
Q

Which species do other species depend upon to survive?

A

Krill

62
Q

What do micro-climatic and topographic conditions mean for some coastal areas?

A

They cause enough melting in the summer months to allow some land to remain free of glaciers

63
Q

Why are the areas on the western Peninsula likely to see more climatic differences as a result to climate change?

A

The melting in summer means that some land can be free of glaciers

64
Q

When did sealing begin?

A

In the 18th century

65
Q

Why were the seals culled?

A

For their fur

66
Q

Where were the seals culled?

A

On and around the island of South Georgia

67
Q

What had happened to the seal population of South Georgia by 1800?

A

They were wiped out

68
Q

After sealing in South Georgia could no longer take place, where did people turn their interest to?

A

The South Shetland Islands

69
Q

What happened within 3 years of sealing on the South Shetland Islands?

A

Over 300,000 seals had been killed and the population virtually eradicated

70
Q

When did whaling begin?

A

The 19th century

71
Q

What were the main targets for whaling?

A

blue and right whales

72
Q

What were the main whaling products?

A

Oil and whalebone

Later on: meat meal, bonemeal, meat extract and even frozen whale meat

73
Q

Which countries were mainly responsible for whaling in the Southern Ocean?

A

Norway, the USA and the UK

74
Q

Where were whaling stations established?

A

On South Georgia and the South Shetlands

75
Q

What did the Norwegians develop in 1904?

A

Grytviken (a whaling station)

76
Q

At its height of success, how many people did Grytviken employ?

A

Over 300 people

77
Q

When was Grytviken abandoned?

A

1965

78
Q

Why was Grytviken abandoned?

A

Whale stocks were becoming seriously depleted and whaling was no longer commercially viable

79
Q

What happened to the whale populations as a result of whaling?

A

They dramatically declined and some species became endangered

80
Q

When was the International Whaling Commission (IWC) established?

A

1946

81
Q

`When did the IWC end most whaling?

A

1985

82
Q

What did the IWC do in 1994?

A

It established the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary

83
Q

How big is the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary?

A

50 million square kilometers

84
Q

What does the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary surround?

A

Antarctica

85
Q

What is banned in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary?

A

All types of commercial whaling

86
Q

Who opposed the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary?

A

Japan

87
Q

Who forms the main pro-whaling lobby?

A

Japan, Norway and Iceland

88
Q

How often is the status of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary reviewed?

A

Every 10 years

89
Q

Why can Japan still hunt whales inside the sanctuary?

A

For scientific research purposes

90
Q

What has Japan’s position on whaling meant for global governance?

A

International tensions on the issue

91
Q

What has now replaced whaling?

A

Fishing

92
Q

When did Fishing begin?

A

In the 1960s

93
Q

Who started fishing first?

A

Russia

94
Q

Give one species that is caught in Antarctica

A

Antarctic rock cod

95
Q

Which countries seem to be fishing for a lot of krill and are causing concerns?

A

Japan and Russia

96
Q

How much can someone expect to pay for 100 red krill oil capsules?

A

£40

97
Q

What are krill a good source of?

A

Protein

98
Q

In which area are krill sold as a source of protein?

A

East Asia

99
Q

What is a problem with ships in Antarctica?

A

Ships dump waste into the ocean which contaminates the water and kills organisms.

100
Q

What is happening to the sea ice on the eastern side of Antarctica?

A

It is increasing dramatically

101
Q

What is happening to the land ice on the western side of Antarctica?

A

It is increasing but not as much as the sea ice on this side of the continent

102
Q

What is happening to the land ice on the western side of the continent?

A

It is being significantly lost

103
Q

What is happening to the sea ice on the western side of Antarctica?

A

It is not gaining anymore sea ice

104
Q

What air temperature increase in the past 50 years has the Antarctic Peninsula experienced?

A

A 3 degrees C temperature rise which is a faster rate than the average for global warming

105
Q

Why has the West Antarctic Ice Sheet thinned significantly?

A

The temperature of Western Antarctica has risen

106
Q

What temperature increase has the Southern Ocean to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula experienced?

A

A 1 degrees C rise since 1955

107
Q

What are the effects of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current warming?

A

The distribution of penguin colonies has changed
Melting of snow and ice cover has increased colonisation by plants
Decline in the abundance of Antarctic krill
Glaciers and ice shelves fringing the Peninsula have either retreated or collapsed entirely
Melting ice shelves increases the flow of the glaciers behind them- these glaciers melt causing sea levels to rise

108
Q

What was the extent of the Antarctic sea ice in 2013?

A

20 million square km which is bigger than the continental land mass itself

109
Q

How thick is sea ice?

A

1-2m

110
Q

How is sea ice formed?

A

It forms when water is cooled sufficiently by the surrounding atmosphere

111
Q

What happens when sea ice is formed?

A

It is blown by wind or moved by currents, ultimately expanding and bonding with other floating sheets of ice.

112
Q

What are the 4 reasons why climate change may contribute to Antarctic sea ice expansion?

A

Increasing westerly winds around the Southern Ocean, caused by climate change and ozone depletion are driving the seas northwards
More rain and snow are layering the Southern Ocean with a cooler, denser layer on top
Storms freshen the water and therefore raising the temperature for sea ice to form
Increased melting of continental land ice creates more floating icebergs which contribute to sea ice formation

113
Q

What makes the ocean becomes slightly less alkaline?

A

Carbonic acid from CO2 emissions

114
Q

What has been projected for polar and sub-polar marine ecosystems?

A

They are projected to become so low in carbonate ions within this century that waters may actually become corrosive to unprotected shells and skeletons of organisms currently living there

115
Q

Why has there never been any commercial mining in Antarctica?

A

Mining is completely banned by the Antarctic Treaty

116
Q

Will the decision made by the Antarctic Treaty to ban mining be changed?

A

No

117
Q

What could the demand for resources in the future mean for Antarctica?

A

Pressure will be put on the vast mineral reserves that are to be found on the continent

118
Q

Why is it not currently economically viable to mine in Antarctica?

A

Any sizeable deposits that are easy to reach are rare and currently not economically viable to mine

119
Q

Why are the minerals so inaccessible?

A

Due to the vast coverings of moving ice streams and glaciers

120
Q

What were some members of the Antarctic Treaty secretly trying to do in the 1970s and 1980s?

A

They were trying to formulate a new minerals convention which would have allowed exploration and possible future exploitation of mineral and gas reserves

121
Q

When was the Mineral Convention adopted?

A

1988

122
Q

Why did the Mineral Convention never come into force?

A

It was not ratified by all members

123
Q

What are the two main human threats to Antarctica?

A

Scientists and tourists

124
Q

What are the impacts of humans inhabiting Antarctica?

A

Vehicle exhausts, construction of buildings and related facilities such as fuel storage, runways and the disposal of waste such as rope, fuel drums and plastics (all of which endangers living organisms)

125
Q

What are the 3 types of Antarctic tourism?

A

Camping trips
Ship-board visits
Over-flights

126
Q

Who are the camping trips for?

A

Naturalists, photographers and journalists

127
Q

How do the ship-board visits work?

A

Cruise ships or converted Russian ice breakers

128
Q

Why did over-flights stop?

A

A New Zealand aeroplane crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all passengers

129
Q

When were over-flights resumed?

A

20 years following the plane crash

130
Q

What do tourists go to Antarctica to see?

A

Glacial landscapes and wildlife. They also go for the isolation and the chance to tests themselves in adverse weather conditions

131
Q

What historic sites can tourists see?

A

The McMurdo Sound with its huts dating from the Scott and Shakleton expeditions

132
Q

When does tourism take place?

A

In the short southern summer period

133
Q

When is the short southern summer period?

A

Mid-November to March

134
Q

What does ship-borne tourism in Antarctica take the form of?

A

Expeditions

135
Q

When did the first tourist ship arrive?

A

1958

136
Q

What is the capacity of most of the tourist ships?

A

50-100 people

137
Q

What are tourists briefed about?

A

Code of conduct, adherence to health and safety requirements and rules about wildlife observation

138
Q

What plan do most cruises follow?

A

The Lindblad Plan

139
Q

What does the Lindblad Plan manage?

A

It manages itineraries in a way that any effects are negligible

140
Q

How does the Lindblad Plan work?

A

There are 200 possible sites to visit.
Groups of 20 tourists have 1 expert guide
Each site may only be visited once every 2/3 days
Captains of cruise ships are responsible for observing this

141
Q

What is the IAATO?

A

International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators

142
Q

What does IAATO do?

A

Lay out rules for cruise ships to adhere to when taking parties ashore

143
Q

Is stress brought to penguins when tourists visit?

A

No

144
Q

Is stress brought to tern colonies when tourists visit?

A

Yes

145
Q

Do tourists cause litter?

A

No, there is more waste from research stations

146
Q

What percentage of landing sites showed wear and tear due to tourism?

A

5%

147
Q

What are 6 concerns about tourism in Antarctica?

A

The summer tourist season coincides with peak wildlife breeding season
The land-based installations and wildlife are clustered in the few ice-free locations on the continent
The demand for freshwater is difficult to meet
Visitor pressure is felt on cultural heritage sites
There is evidence that over-flying by light planes and helicopters causes some stress to breeding colonies of penguins and other birds
The unique legal status of Antarctica makes the enforcement of any code of behaviour difficult

148
Q

What cultural heritage sites are there in Antarctica?

A

Old whaling and sealing stations as well as early exploration bases

Global Systems and Global Governance (11 decks)

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