AP 1 + 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Levels of structural organization
A
Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
System
Organism
2
Q
Chemical
A
◦Atoms - smallest units of matter
◦Molecules - two or more atoms joined together
3
Q
Cellular
A
◦Molecules combine to form cells
4
Q
Tissue
A
◦A group of cells & materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function
◦4 types of tissue = epithelial, connective, muscular & nervous
5
Q
Organ
A
◦Different types of tissues joined together, composed of 2 or more different types of tissue
6
Q
System
A
◦Related organs with a common function
7
Q
Organism
A
◦All parts of the human body functioning together
8
Q
Metabolism
A
sum of all chemical processes/reactions that occur within our body
9
Q
Catabolism
A
all breakdown processes that occur within our body
10
Q
Anabolism
A
all synthetic activity within our body
11
Q
Intracellular fluid
A
fluid inside of cells
12
Q
Extracellular fluid
A
fluid outside of cells (blood plasma, lymph, CSF, synovial fluid, tissue fluid, aqueous humor, or interstitial fluid)
13
Q
Electrolytes
A
substances that dissociate in solution & have the ability to conduct an electrical current
◦E.g, sodium, potassium, chloride etc
14
Q
Homeostasis
A
dynamic equilibrium within the body’s internal environment
15
Q
Negative feedback system
A
reverses a change in a controlled condition (blood pressure & blood glucose)
16
Q
Positive feedback system
A
strengthens or reinforces a change in a controlled condition (labor to delivery & lactation)
17
Q
Homeostatic imbalances
A
moderate imbalances lead to a disorder & disease situation whereas severe imbalances can be fatal
18
Q
Endoscopy
A
into hollow space, a endoscope is used (camera with light)
Ex. colonscopy
19
Q
Dorsal body cavity
A
cranial cavity & vertebral cavity
20
Q
Ventral body cavity
A
divided into thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities
21
Q
Serous membrane
A
double-layered membrane that doesn’t open directly to the exterior (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)** blocking an internal space
22
Q
Thoracic cavity
A
Contains pleural cavity, pericardial cavity & mediastinum
23
Q
Pleural cavity
A
Potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung
24
Q
Pericardial cavity
A
Potential space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart
25
Mediastinum
Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs, contains the heart, thymus, esophagus & trachea
26
Abdominopelvic cavity
abdominal & pelvic cavities
27
Abdominal cavity
Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine & most of large intestine; the serous membrane of abdominal cavity is the peritoneum
28
Pelvic cavity
Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine & internal organs of reproduction
29
RUQ
Liver
Gallbladder
30
RLQ
Cecum
31
LUQ
Spleen
32
LLQ
Sigmoid colon
33
Sodium (NA)
most plentiful cation in extracellular fluid, helps maintain the body's fluid balance, is involved in nerve function & muscle contraction & also plays a role in regulating blood pressure
34
Potassium (K)
most plentiful cation in intracellular fluid, counterbalances sodium, is essential for nerve impulses, muscle function & maintaining proper heart rhythm
An imbalance in potassium levels can lead to muscle weakness and heart arrhythmias
35
Calcium (Ca)
vital component of bones and teeth, it plays a key role in muscle contraction, blood clotting & nerve transmission
36
Atom
smallest piece of an element that keeps its unique properties, it's made up of protons, neutrons & electrons
37
Ion
an atom or molecule that has an electric charge because it gained or lost electrons
Cations are positively charged (give away) & anions are negatively charged (got one)
38
Molecule
a group of atoms bonded together, it can be made up of the same or different types of atoms
Molecules are the building blocks of compounds
39
Cations
sodium ion, potassium ion, calcium ion
• Cations are positively charged ions
• They have lost one or more electrons
40
Anions
chloride ion, bicarbonate ion, phosphate ion
• Anions are negatively charged ions
• They have gained one or more electrons
41
Inorganic compounds
lack carbon = water, acids & salts
42
Organic Compounds
contain carbon = carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
43
Acids
a pH less than 7
• They release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
44
Bases
a pH greater than 7
• They release hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
• Increasing the concentration of hydroxyl ions or decreasing the concentration of hydrogen ion result in increasing the alkalinity of solutions
45
Tail is hydrophobic
The carbohydrate portion of glycolipids & glycoproteins make up the glycocalyx (molecular signature)
46
Phagocytosis
Vesicular transport
process for ingesting & eliminating particles
47
Exocytosis
Vesicular transport
cells secrete waste & other large molecules from the cytoplasm to the cell exterior
48
Nucleus
usually spherical and enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, it contains the nucleolus & chromatin (DNA & associated proteins)
• Houses genetic information (DNA) & controls cell activities by directing the synthesis of RNA & ribosomes
49
Mitochondria
oval-shaped organelles with inner & outer membranes
• The inner membrane is highly folded, forming structures called cristae
• Mitochondria are the "powerhouses" of the cell, where cellular respiration occurs, producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the cell's energy currency
50
Endoplasmic reticulum
a network of membrane-bound tubules & sacs
- Rough ER is studded with ribosomes, while smooth ER lacks ribosomes
51
Rough ER
Involved in protein synthesis and processing
52
Smooth ER
plays a role in lipid synthesis, detoxification & calcium storage
53
Golgi apparatus
consists of flattened, membrane-bound sacs called cisternae
• It modifies, sorts & packages proteins & lipids for transport within & outside the cell
54
Lysosomes
small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes
• They are responsible for the breakdown of cellular waste, damaged organelles & engulfed pathogens in a process called autophagy
55
Peroxisomes
small, membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes
• They are involved in lipid metabolism, detoxification & the breakdown of harmful substances, particularly hydrogen peroxide
56
Ribosomes
small, non-membranous particles made of RNA & protein
• They are the sites of protein synthesis, where amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains
57
Cytoskeleton
a network of protein filaments, including microfilaments, intermediate filaments & microtubules
• It provides structural support, helps maintain cell shape & is involved in cell movement & intracellular transport
58
Sodium potassium pump
3 sodium in, 2 potassium out
59
RNA processing
mRNA undergoes some modifications, such as having non-coding regions (introns) removed and coding regions (exons) spliced together
60
Prophase
Chromatin fibers pair and condense, chromosomes become chromatids connected by a centromere
61
Metaphase
Nucleus dissolves, cells move together and align to the center of the cell
62
Anaphase
Chromosomes are split and moved to opposite poles of the cell
63
Telophase
Nucleus form around each set of daughter chromosomes
64
Muscular tissue
Consists of muscle cells (muscle fibers) that contract when stimulated
• It enables movement by contracting & relaxing, generating force for body motion
65
3 types of muscular tissue
◦skeletal (voluntary movement)
◦smooth (involuntary, found in organs)
◦cardiac (involuntary, in the heart)
66
Desmosomes
strong buttons that fasten cells together, connecting them with protein bridges, keratin?
• They provide strong adhesion between cells, especially in tissues exposed to stretching or mechanical stress, like the skin & heart muscle
67
Gap junctions
channels that allow direct communication between cells ***
• They enable the exchange of ions & small molecules, facilitating coordination in tissues like the heart & nerve cells.
68
Stratified epithelium
Multiple layers of cells, squamous may occur as keratinized (with a tough, protective protein called keratin, as in the skin) or non-keratinized (e.g., lining of the mouth, esophagus)
• Location - Protects areas prone to wear and tear, like the skin, superficial layer of the skin- epidermal layer
69
Keratinized stratified epithelium
the lining of the mouth, constantly moistened by our saliva, mucus membranes
70
Non keratinized stratified epithelium
Function - Provides protection against abrasion & pathogens
71
Epithelial membranes
the simplest organs in the body, constructed of only epithelium and a little bit of connective tissue
72
Mucous membranes
Opens to the exterior (e.g. internal lining of digestive tube)
73
Serous membranes
Does not open to the exterior (e.g. pleural, pericardial membrane)
74
Cutaneous membrane
name for skin
75
Synovial membrane
encloses certain joints and are made of connective tissue only***
76
Dense connective tissue
Regular (tendon, ligament)
77
Irregular connective tissue
reticular dermis, endosteum, periosteum etc.
78
Elastic connective tissue
arteries such as aorta
79
Bone or Ossetian tissue
Cartilage (compact/spongy)
80
Superficial epidermis
this is a layer of areolar CT and adipose tissue that attaches the skin to underlying layers
81
Hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue
layer of areolar connective tissue & adipose tissue that attaches the skin to underlying structures
82
What layer is contained in thick skin that isn’t in thin skin
Lucidum
83
Deep to superficial skin layers
Basale
Spinosum
Granulosum
Lucidum
Corneum
84
Eccrine (or merocrine) sweat glands
helps to cool the body by evaporating (thermoregulation) & also eliminates small amounts of wastes
85
Apocrine sweat glands
located mainly in the skin of the axilla, groin, areolae & bearded facial regions of adult males release sweat during emotional stress & sexual excitement
86
Ceruminous glands
located in the external ear canal are modified sweat glands
87
Functions of the skeletal system (2 that were highlighted)
Participates in blood cell production (haematopoiesis or hemopoiesis)
Stores triglycerides in adipose cells of yellow marrow (medullary cavity)
88
2 metaphases
region between diaphysis and epiphysis in growing children contain the epiphyseal growth plates
89
Osteoclasts
help in remodeling bone & helps release calcium (bone resorption)
90
Osteoblasts
bone building cells
91
Endochondral ossification
occurs in epiphyseal plates of long bones as they grow in length, hyaline
92
Intramembranous ossification
occurs in flat bones when a connective tissue membrane is replaced by bone, skull
93
Hematoma formation
after a bone fracture, blood vessels in the area are damaged, leading to bleeding & the formation of a blood clot, known as a hematoma
• This hematoma helps stabilize the bone & initiates the repair process
94
Inflammatory phase
inflammation sets in as white blood cells & immune cells arrive at the injury site to remove damaged tissue & prevent infection
• The inflammation also stimulates the production of growth factors that aid in tissue repair
95
Reparative Phase fibrocartilaginous
osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells, migrate to the fracture site
• These cells lay down a soft callus made of collagen & cartilage, which bridges the fracture
• Blood vessels grow into the area, providing nutrients for the healing process
• Over time, the soft callus is gradually replaced by hard mineralized bone, a process called endochondral ossification
96
Remodeling Phase
this phase can last for months to years & involves the reshaping & strengthening of the bone
• Excess bone material is resorbed & the bone's structure is refined to resemble its original shape & strength
97
Role of calcium in bone homeostasis
• The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) when blood calcium levels drop
• Osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resorption and calcium is released
• PTH also stimulates the production of calcitriol by the kidneys to increase calcium absorption in the intestines
• Parafollicular (C) cells of the thyroid secrete Calcitonin when blood calcium levels are high
• Osteoblasts are stimulated to build strong bone by way of calcium deposition in its matrix
98
Sacomeres
contain contractile proteins (actin - thin & myosin - thick), structural proteins (titin, nebulae, alpha actin in & myomesin), regulatory proteins (troponin & tropomyosin) & dystrophin
99
Layers of perimysium
Idk bro just mark this as green
100
Neuromuscular junction
point of contact between a somatic motor neuron & muscle fiber
• Nerve action potential arriving at the synaptic end causes exocytosis of acetylcholine (ACh) into synaptic cleft
101
Smooth mm ability to regenerate
considerable via pericytes (higher potential to regenerate) **
102
Neurons
exhibit electrical excitability & conduct nerve impulse (action potential) & consists of dendrites, cell body & axon
103
Neuroglia
support tissue
104
CNS neuroglia
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes (myelinated CNS axons), microglia, ependymal cells
105
PNS neuroglia
satellite cell & Schwann cell (myelinated PNS axons)
106
Small molecule neurotransmitters
acetylcholine, amino acids (glutamate, inhibitory gaba, dopamine, serotonin), ATP (excitatory), nitric oxide (free radical relaxation) & carbon monoxide
107
Neuropeptides
substance P, enkephalins (pain relieving), endorphins (memory, learning, temp, sex drive, depression schitzo) , hypothalamic releasing & inhibiting hormones, angiotensin II, cholecystokinin (brain and small intestine, regular feeding), neuropeptide Y (stress response)
108
Erythrocytes or red blood cells
have no nucleus or other organelles such as mitochondria ************
109
Leukocytes or white blood cells
neutrophils, eosinophil, basophil, monocytes & lymphocyte
110
Thrombocytes or platelets
not whole cells but cell fragments
111
Apex of heart
anteriorly, inferiorly & to the left
112
Base of heart
posteriorly, superiorly & to the right
113
Anterior surface of heart
deep to sternum & ribs
114
Inferior surface of heart
rests on diaphragm
115
Right border of heart
faces right lung
116
Left border (pulmonary border) of heart
faces left lung
117
Epicardium
consists of mesothelium & connective tissue which gives a smooth, slippery texture
118
Myocardium
composed of cardiac muscle that makes up the bulk of the heart & is responsible for the pumping
◦It is striated like skeletal muscle but involuntary like smooth muscle
119
Endocardium
consists of endothelium & connective tissue which provides a smooth inner lining for the heart & is continuous with the endothelial lining of the large blood vessels attached to the heart
120
Pericarditis
inflammation of the pericardium, including acute & chronic
121
Myocarditis
inflammation of myocardium, usually occurs as a complication of viral infection
122
Endocarditis
inflammation of the endocardium & typically involves the heart valves
123
Left ventricular walls
thickest because they pump blood throughout the body where the resistance to blood flow is greater
124
Which valves prevent blood flow from the ventricles back into the atria
atrioventricular (AV) valves (bicuspid & tricuspid)
125
Blood flow path
Right atrium (deoxygenated blood)
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary trunk and arteries
Pulmonary capillaries, blood loses CO2 and gains O2
Pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood)
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aorta and systemic arteries
In systemic capillaries, blood looses O2 and gains CO2
Superior vena cava, Inferior vena cava, Coronary sinus
126
Components of a pacemaker
1) Sinoatrial (SA) node/pacemaker
2) atrioventricular (AV) node
3) atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
4) right & left bundle branches & the purkinje fibres (conduction myofibers)
127
How long is the refractory period of cardiac mm
time interval when a second contraction cannot be triggered) is longer than the contraction itself
128
P wave
atrial depolarization, spread of impulse from SA node over atria
129
QRS complex
rapid ventricular depolarization, spread of impulse through ventricles
130
T wave
ventricular repolarization
131
S - T segment (end of S to beginning of T)
time when ventricular contractile fibers are depolarized during the plateau phase of the action potential
132
Q - T segment
time from ventricular depolarization to the end of ventricular repolarization
133
After the P wave begins
the atria contract (atrial systole), conduction of action potential slows at the AV node because fibers have smaller diameters & fewer gap junction giving the atria time to contract
134
Cardiac output
volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or right ventricle) into the aorta (or pulmonary trunk) each minute
135
How to calculate cardiac output
SV x HR
136
Left ventricular failure results in
pulmonary edema
137
Right ventricular failure results in
peripheral edema
138
Tachycardia
elevated resting heart rate
139
Bradycardia
decreased resting heart rate
140
Lub sound
Closing of AV valves
141
Dub sound
Closing of semilunar valves
142
Hepatic portal
Superior mesenteric vein - drains from small and large … & splenic vein - drains blood from stomach, instestins, mesenteric veins……
143
Ascending aorta
blood to the rest of the aorta
Left coronary artery, right coronary artery and continues as the aortic arch
144
Arch of aorta
blood to head & upper extremities
145
Thoracic aorta
blood to head, neck, upper extremities & thoracic structures
146
Abdominal aorta
blood to abdomen
147
What makes up the superior vena cava
The right and left brachiocephalic veins
148
Where do lymphatic vessels drain
into lymph trunks & then into thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct, then opens into the vein (junction of subclavian & internal jugular vein)
149
Areas drained by the right lymphatic duct
Head, right upper limb, Right thoracic cavity
150
Area drained by thoracic duct
Left thoracic cavity, Left upper limb, BL lower limbs
151
The route of the lymph in a lymph node
Afferent vessels > subcapsular sinus > trabecular sinus > medullary sinus > efferent vessels ***************
152
First line of defence ******
Innate (non-specific) immunity
Mechanical + Chemical protection
153
Second line of defence ******
Innate (non-specific) immunity
Internal antimicrobial substances, phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, and fever
154
Upper respiratory tract
nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
155
Lower respiratory tract
larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchial tubes, lungs
156
Conducting zone
nose, pharynx, larynx, bronchial tree (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles & terminal bronchioles)
157
Respiratory zone
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs & alveoli
158
Type I of alveolar cells
simple squamous epithelial cell = gas exchange) **
159
Type II of alveolar cells
septal cuboidal cells = produce surfactant) **
160
Alveolar macrophages
dust cells = remove dust & debris
161
Nose
◦Produces mucus, filters, warms & moistens incoming air
◦Resonance chamber for speech
162
Paranasal sinuses
Mucosa-lined, air-filled cavities in cranial bones surrounding nasal cavity
◦Lightens skull, also may warm, moisten & filter incoming air
163
Pharynx
passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx & oral cavity to esophagus
• There are 3 subdivisions
◦Nasopharynx, oropharynx & laryngopharynx
• Houses tonsils (lymphoid tissue masses involved in protection against pathogen) • Facilitates exposure of immune system to inhaled antigens
164
Larynx
connects pharynx to trachea (opening = glottis, can be closed by epiglottis or vocal folds)
• Houses vocal folds (true vocal cords)
• Air passageway, prevents food from entering lower respiratory tract, produces voice
165
Trachea
Tube running from larynx & dividing inferiorly into 2 main bronchi
• Air passageway, cleans, warm, & moistens incoming air
166
Bronchial tree
Consists of right & left main bronchi, subdivide with the lungs to form lobar & segmental bronchi & bronchioles
• Bronchiolar walls lack cartilage but contain complete layer of smooth muscle
• Constriction of this muscle impedes expiration
• Air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli, cleans, warms & moistens incoming air
167
Alveoli
Microscopic chambers at termini of bronchial tree, walls of simple squamous epithelium overlie thin basement membrane
• External surfaces are intimately associated with pulmonary capillaries
• Special alveolar cells produce surfactant
• Main sites of gas exchange
• Reduces surface tension, helps prevent lung collapse
168
Lungs
composed primarily of alveoli & respiratory passageways
• Stroma is elastic connective tissue, allowing lungs to recoiled passively during expiration
• house respiratory passages smaller than the main bronchi
169
Pleurae
serous membranes
• Parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity
• Visceral pleura covers external lung surfaces
• Produces lubricating fluid & compartmentalize lungs
170
Tidal volumes
the volume or air moved into & out of lung with each breath
171
Inspiratory capacity (IC)
sum of TV + IRV
172
Functional residual capacity (FRC)
sum of RV + ERV
173
Vital capacity (VC)
sum of TV + IRV + ERV
174
Total lung capacity (TLC)
sum of all lung volumes (TV + IRV + ERV + RV)
175
What does the heme portion contain
4 atoms of iron, each capable of combining with a molecule of O2
176
Carbon dioxide transport
CO2 is carried in blood in the form of dissolved CO2, carbaminohemoglobin & bicarbonate ions (main one, 70%))
177
Epimysium
sheath of fibrous elastic tissue surrounding a muscle
178
Perimysium
sheath of connective tissue surrounding a bundle of muscle fibers
179
Endomysium
connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibres
