AP EXAM Flashcards
1
Q
What are empirical statements?
A
Factual and objective statements based on data.
2
Q
What are normative statements?
A
Value statements; interpretations or opinions based on analysis of the data.
3
Q
What does the Human Development Index (HDI) measure?
A
Indicator of development for each country based on income, literacy, education, and life expectancy.
4
Q
What is Gross Domestic Product (GDP)?
A
The sum total of the value of all the goods and services produced in a nation.
5
Q
What is GDP per capita?
A
Gross domestic product divided by the number of people.
6
Q
How is the GDP growth rate calculated?
A
(Current year’s GDP - Last year’s GDP) / (Last year’s GDP) x 100.
7
Q
What does the Gini Index measure?
A
The amount of inequality in a society; ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).
8
Q
What does the Freedom House Index measure?
A
Political rights and civil liberties for individuals.
9
Q
What is the purpose of Transparency International?
A
To compile statistics about corruption in countries around the world.
10
Q
What is the Failed States Index?
A
A measure of the degree to which states are weak or fragile.
11
Q
Define political system.
A
The laws, ideas, and procedures that address who has authority to rule and how the government influences its people and economy.
12
Q
What is a state?
A
Political organizations with a population, government, territory, and sovereignty.
13
Q
What is a regime?
A
The fundamental rules that control access and the exercise of political power.
14
Q
What is government?
A
The set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state.
15
Q
What is a nation?
A
A group of people with commonalities including race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity, and aspirations.
16
Q
What is a nation-state?
A
When a nation also meets the characteristics of a state.
17
Q
List factors that differentiate democracy from authoritarianism.
A
- Adherence to rule of law
- Degree of state influence/control of media
- How free & fair are the elections
- Degree of transparency for government decision making
- Nature of citizen participation in the government
- Degrees of independence of executive, legislative & judicial branches.
18
Q
What is democratization?
A
Transition from an authoritarian regime to democratic.
19
Q
What is democratic consolidation?
A
Process of a maturing democracy that makes it unlikely to revert to authoritarianism.
20
Q
What characterizes a federal system?
A
Powers of government divided between the national government and regional, state, or provincial governments.
Ex: Mexico, Russia, Nigeria
21
Q
What characterizes a unitary system?
A
Power is vested in a central government; regional governments have only the powers given by the central government.
Ex: UK, China, Iran
22
Q
What is devolution?
A
When the central government delegates powers to regional areas; what is given can be taken back.
23
Q
Define political legitimacy.
A
Citizens’ belief in the government’s right to exercise power over them.
24
Q
List sources of legitimacy.
A
- Tradition
- Charismatic
- Rational-legal
- Popular election results
- Economic growth
- Religion
- Revolution.
25
What can undermine political legitimacy?
A bad economy, perception of corruption, questioning the integrity of election results, social conflict.
26
What factors affect political stability?
* Combatting corruption
* State responses to separatist groups
* State response to mass protest movements
* State response to internal reform movements.
27
What is sovereignty?
Independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory.
28
What is capacity in a political context?
The extent to which a state can effectively execute a policy decision it has made.
29
What are linkage institutions?
Organizations and systems that help connect citizens to the policymaking process.
30
What is a semi-presidential system?
A system featuring separate popular elections for the president and for the national legislature, allowing the president to nominate a prime minister, who must be approved by the legislature.
## Footnote
Example: Russia
31
Define parliamentary systems.
Systems that combine lawmaking and executive functions, allowing the national legislature to select and remove the head of government and cabinet.
## Footnote
Example: UK
32
What characterizes presidential systems?
They have a cabinet responsible to the elected executive, separate fixed-term elections for the national legislature, and a top executive serving as both head of state and head of government.
## Footnote
Examples: Nigeria and Mexico
33
List the advantages of executive term limits.
* Check executive power
* Inhibit emergence of dictators
* Focus officeholder on governing
* Provide opportunities for new leaders
34
List the disadvantages of executive term limits.
* Force good executives to leave
* Insufficient time to achieve goals
* Impede policy continuity
* Weaken accountability
* Create lame-duck periods
* Prevent building experience
* Cause poorly designed policy
35
What are the term limits for China?
5-year terms, no limits.
36
What are the term limits for Iran's president?
2 four-year terms.
37
How can executives be removed in a parliamentary system?
Through a vote of no confidence done by the lower house.
38
What is the role of the Majles in Iran?
Acts as an elected unicameral body that approves legislation, oversees the budget, and confirms presidential nominees.
## Footnote
It operates under the supervision of the Guardian Council.
39
Describe the legislative system in Mexico.
Bicameral system consisting of a lower house (Chamber of Deputies) and an upper house (Senate).
## Footnote
The Senate confirms presidential appointments to the Supreme Court.
40
What is the primary function of the judiciary in China?
To ensure the legal system is subservient to the decisions of the Chinese Communist Party.
41
What type of law does Iran's judicial system primarily use?
Sharia Law.
42
True or False: The UK uses a common law system.
True.
43
What does 'rule of law' mean?
Laws are applied fairly to all citizens; no one is above the law.
44
What does 'rule by law' imply?
Law is applied unevenly; people may be above the law, used as a tool against critics.
45
What is judicial review?
The power of courts to overrule executive and legislative actions.
46
List the countries that have a judicial review system.
* Russia
* Mexico
* Nigeria
47
What is a rubber stamp legislature?
A legislature that approves executive action without debate or checks.
48
What is the highest court in Russia?
Constitutional Court.
49
What is the major function of the Supreme Court in the UK?
To serve as the final court of appeals and protect human/civil rights.
50
What is the significance of independent judiciaries?
They maintain checks and balances, protect rights, establish rule of law, and maintain separation of powers.
51
What does civil society comprise?
A range of voluntary associations that are autonomous from the state, including local religious and neighborhood organizations, news media, business and professional associations, and NGOs.
52
How are civil society organizations influenced by regime types?
Authoritarian governments tend to have more monitoring or restrictive policies.
53
What role do civil society organizations play in democratization?
They can monitor and lobby the government, expose governmental malfeasance, represent the interests of members, and provide members with organizational experience.
54
Define political culture.
The collective attitudes, values, and beliefs of the citizenry and the norms of behavior in the political system.
55
What influences political culture?
Political socialization.
56
What is political socialization?
The lifelong process of acquiring one’s beliefs, values, and orientations toward the political system.
57
What are some agents of political socialization?
* Family
* Media
* School
* Religion
58
How do authoritarian regimes differ from democratic regimes in terms of socialization?
Authoritarian regimes apply more concerted governmental pressures to socialize their citizens around conforming beliefs.
59
Define political ideology.
A set of values and beliefs about the goals of government, public policy, or politics.
60
List the six political ideologies.
* Individualism
* Neoliberalism
* Socialism
* Communism
* Fascism
* Populism
61
What does individualism emphasize?
Belief in individual civil liberties and freedom over governmental restrictions.
62
What is neoliberalism?
Belief in limited governmental intervention in the economy and society; supports privatization, free trade, deregulation, and the elimination of state subsidies.
63
What does socialism advocate for?
Reduction of income disparities and the nationalization of major private industries.
64
What is communism?
Belief in the abolition of private property with near total governmental control of the economy.
65
Define fascism.
Extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority over that of ethnic minorities and the political opposition.
66
What is populism?
Political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over that of the elites.
67
How do political ideologies affect the state's treatment of citizens?
They dictate how the state treats its citizens and how they deal with specific problems.
68
What is the difference between rule by law and rule of law?
Rule by law relies on the state using the law to reinforce its authority, while rule of law limits the state to the same rules as its citizens.
69
What does post-materialism refer to?
Social valuing of self-expression and quality of life that leads to pressure on governments to address environmental issues and social and economic equality.
70
What can political participation be?
Voluntary or coerced, occurring at the individual or group level.
71
What are forms of political participation?
* Support of regime
* Opposition seeking change in government policies or overthrowing the regime
72
What is the purpose of formal political participation?
* Increases legitimacy
* Gathers information
* Acts as a safety valve
* Applies a check on government
73
How might authoritarian regimes use formal participation?
To intimidate the opposition and create an illusion of influence.
74
What is a referendum?
Allows citizens to vote directly on policy questions.
75
List some reasons for holding referendums.
* Promote democracy/legitimacy
* Bypass legislature
* Make leaders less accountable for difficult or controversial decisions
76
What are civil liberties?
Protection from government, including freedoms like speech, religion, media, and protection of the accused.
77
Define civil rights.
Equality extended by the government.
78
How do democratic regimes generally treat media freedom?
They tolerate a high degree of media freedom to encourage citizen control of the political agenda and check political power and corruption.
79
What is an illiberal democracy?
A hybrid regime holding contested elections but with limited degrees of competitiveness and minimal civil liberty protections.
80
What are social and political cleavages?
Internal divisions that structure societies based on class, ethnicity, religion, or territory.
81
What are some examples of social and political cleavages in China?
Ethnic and regional divisions between the majority Han ethnic group and at least 55 recognized ethnic minorities. (Uighurs in SW)
82
What challenges do governments face in securing stability in multinational states?
* Conflicting interests among groups
* Perceived lack of governmental authority
* Pressure for autonomy/secession
* Intergroup conflict
* Terrorism
* Civil war
83
What impact do social cleavages have in different countries?
They affect voting behavior, party systems, and can lead to separatist movements.
84
What can state responses to social cleavages include?
* Brute repression
* Recognition of ethnic/religious minorities
* Creation of autonomous regions
* Representation of minorities in governmental institutions
85
# China
Electoral Systems and Rules
The National People’s
Congress of China selects members
indirectly through a series of local
and regional elections. Executive is
appointed by NPC
86
# Iran
Electoral Systems and Rules
Majles members are directly
elected in single-member and
multi member districts, which
sometimes requires a second round
of voting; candidates are vetted by
the Guardian Council, and the
legislative body lacks formal
political party structures; a small
number of the 290 seats in the
Majles are reserved for non-Muslim
minorities, such as Christians, Jews,
and Zoroastrians.
87
# Mexico
Electoral Systems and Rules
This means the candidate who receives the most votes wins, even if they don't secure a majority (over 50%) of the votes
-Independent Electoral Institute (INE): The National Electoral Institute (INE) is an autonomous body responsible for organizing and overseeing elections.
-gender quotas in the party list system have helped
increase female representation in
the legislature.
88
# Nigeria
Electoral Systems and Rules
Plurality of Votes: A candidate needs to win the most votes nationwide to win the presidency.
Geographic Representation: The candidate must also secure at least 25% of the votes in a minimum of two-thirds of all Nigerian states.
-Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC): The INEC is responsible for overseeing elections and political parties in Nigeria. Its role is to help ensure that the electoral process is free and fair.
89
# Russia
Electoral Systems and Rules
Duma (Lower House of Parliament) Elections:
Mixed Electoral System: The Duma employs a mixed system.
Proportional Representation: Half (225) of the Duma seats are filled through proportional representation from party lists.
Single-Member Districts (SMDs): The other half (225) are elected from single-member districts using first-past-the-post (FPTP) rules, where the candidate with the most votes win
Members of the Federation Council are not directly elected but rather appointed.
the president is directly elected by the people through a popular vote.
89
Changes to state Duma
elections in Russia have returned it
to a system in which half of the
representatives are directly elected
-appointment of
Federation Council is done
by regional governors and
the regional legislature. The
creation of nine federal
districts (with the annexation
of Crimea)has reasserted
federal power under the
Russian president by
allowing him to appoint
leaders to the districts, and
allowing regional
legislatures to forgo
elections and appoint a
governor from a list of
candidates approved by the
president.
90
# China
political party systems
has rules that allow only
one party, the Communist Party
of China, to control governing
power to maintain the values of
centralism and order, while
allowing eight other parties to
exist to broaden discussion and
consultation.
91
# Russia
political party sytems
Rules ensuring one-party dominance for United
Russia include increasing party
registration requirements,
allowing only legally registered
parties to run for office, using
selective court decisions to
disqualify candidates, limiting
the ability of political opposition
to present their viewpoints in the
media, increasing threshold rules
to limit party access to the ballot,
and eliminating gubernatorial
elections.
92
# Mexico
Political party systems
Under the PRI/Before 2000, the rules allowed other political parties to compete, but only one party controlled the government in Mexico.
-multi-party system:
- National Electoral Institute
(IFE).
-morena
93
pluralist systems
promote competition among
autonomous groups not linked
to the state, less state control
over civil society
94
Corporatist systems:
government controls access to
policy making by relying on
state-sanctioned groups or
single peak associations (SPAs)
to represent labor, business, and
agricultural sectors. More state
control
● Interest group systems can
change over time, as
represented by Mexico’s
moving from a corporatist
system toward a pluralist
system.
95
# UK
Electoral systems and rules
House of Commons membersare directly elected under single member district first-past-the-post rules
PM not directly elected by the people, but is a member of parliament & leader of the majority party
96
➔ Plurality:
most votes wins,
also known as
first-past-the-post or
winner-take-all
97
majority
need over 50%
of vote to win
98
single meber district
districts where only one
representative wins, tend to
be plurality elections`
99
multi-member districts
2
or more representatives per
district.
100
# Mexico
election rules
president is elected
by a plurality of the national
popular vote, not a majority.
101
# Nigeria
Election rules
-Direct popular election for a four-year term (renewable once)
-To win, a candidate must receive the most votes nationally AND at least 25% of votes in two-thirds of the 36 states
-house of Representatives members elected from single-member districts based on state population
-Senate has three directly elected members from each of the 36 states
-independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) manages elections
102
# Iran
Election Rules
Half of Iran’s
Guardian Council members
are selected by the Supreme
Leader, and half are
nominees from the judiciary
with Majles approval.
103
# UK
Election rules
two large parties
(Labour and
Conservative) dominate
the House of Commons;
single-member district
plurality elections
diminish minor party
representation;
single-member districts
allow regional parties to
win legislative seats.
(Scottish National
Party)
104
# Iran
Social movements
Green Movement in
Iran: protested
corruption in elections
➔ Current women’s
movement in Iran
over wearing of hijab
105
# NIgeria
Social Movements
Movement
for the Emancipation
of the Niger Delta
(MEND) and the
Movement for the
Survival of the Ogoni
People (MOSOP),
Niger Delta Avengers
which have emerged to
advocate for the rights
of an ethnic minority or
protest against unjust
methods of extraction
and distribution of oil
in the Niger Delta
region
➔ Boko Haram in
Nigeria, attempting to
establish an Islamic
state in northern Nigeria
106
# Mexico
Social Movements
Zapatistas in Mexico,
in response to
socioeconomic
inequality and the
negative impact of the
North American Free
Trade Agreement
(NAFTA)
➔ Mexico women’s
movement in response
to violence against
women
107
economic liberalization
is
reduction of state control of the
economy, examples include
➔ Deregulation
➔ Privatization
➔ Lowering or removing
tariffs
● Every country has gone through
economic liberalization at some
point since the 1970s.
➔ Economic liberalization
can lead to economic
growth, increased income
gap, environmental
degradation, population
shifts, etc.
108
# China
political responces to global market forces
Special Economic
Zones on the coast.
109
# MExico
political responce to global market forces
Privatization and
increased competition in
Mexico’s oil industry
(Pemex)
110
# Nigeria
Political Responcew to Global Market Forces
state-owned
Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation (NNPC)
collaborating with foreign
companies in joint ventures
to extract and produce oil
111
# Russia
Political responces to Global Market Forces
Putin’s re-nationalization of
oil/natural gas industries and
imposition of foreign
investment limitations
112
Austerity measures:
concerns about budget deficits might see cuts to social spending (definitely seen in
UK, China, Iran, and Russia)
113
# Mexico
Demographic Change
South to North
movement
114
# China
Demographic Change
rural interior to urban
coastal (West to east)
115
# Nigeria
Demographic change
North to South or
rural to urban areas
116
rentier states
(including Iran,
Nigeria, and Russia) that obtain a
sizable percentage of total
government revenue from the export
of oil and gas or from leasing the
resource to foreign countries, have
been able to raise standards of living
and fund governmental programs
based on their huge reserves.
117
resource curse
Oil leads to issues
in terms of democratization and
economic growth/diversification
118
legitimacy
-citizens belief in gov't right to excersize power over them
-Sources of legitimacy:
* Tradition (ex: UK)
* Charismatic (personality cult)
(Khomeini in Iran)
* Rational-legal (constitutions; rules
and laws)
* Popular election results
* Economic growth (ex: China)
* Religion (ex: Iran)
* Revolution (China, Iran)
119
Semi-presidential systems
systems feature separate popular elections for the
president and for the national
legislature, allowing the president to
nominate a prime minister (who
must be approved by the
legislature); members of the cabinet
are held accountable by both the
president and legislature.
| Russia
120
China executive system
President and
Premier, General-Secretary
of CCP
121
Iran executive system
Supreme Leader and
President
122
Mexico Executive system
president
123
nigeria executive system
president
124
Nigeria executive system
president
125
Russia executive systems
president and prime minister
126
UK executive system
monarch and prime miister
127
mexico executive limits
-Pres: 1 6-year
term
128
nigeria executive term limits
-Pres, 2 4-year
terms
129
Russia executive term limits
Pres: 2 6-year
terms, PM: 6-year terms
130
UK executive term limits
Monarch, none,
PM: 5-year terms, no
limits
131
# China
legislative systems
-party-controlled system is unicameral and has elected NPC
-NPC elects rpesident, approves premier, and legitimizes policies of executive/ rubber stamp
132
# Iran
Legislative system
-theocraxy is unicameral, Majles is elected, have power to approce legislation
-oversee the budget, confirm presidential nominees to the Cabinet
-supervision of the guardian council to ensure compatibility of Islam and Sharia law
133
# Mexico
legislative system
-congressional-presidential system is bicameral
-elected lower house: Chamber of Deputites that approe legislation, levy tazes, verify elections
-eleted upper house: Senate; confirm presidential appointments to Supreme court, approve treaties, approve federal interbention in state matters
134
# Nigeria
Legislative system
- congressionak-presidential, bicameral with elected upper and lower chamber (senate and house of represenatives)
- -both chambers have power to approve legislation
- senate can impeach and confirm
135
# Russia
Legislative systems
parlimetary-hybrid, bicameral system
-consists of elected State Duma which passes legislation and confirms PM
-appointed federation council approves budget, treaties, jduicial nominness, and troop deployment
136
# UK
legislative systems
-parlimetary, bicameral system
-elected House of Commons which apporves legislation, prime minister
-appointed House of Lords reviews and emmmends bills from commons, delaying as a check
137
# Iran
Political and social cleavages
-religioys divisions betwedn Shi'a Muslim majority and other religions like Cristianity
-ethnic cleavages between makority Persians and ethnic minorities
138
# Mexico
Political cleavages
-ethnic divisions between Amerindian (indigenos) and whites and mestizons
-regional divisions between the north and the south
139
# Nigeria
Cleavages
-ethnic divisions among more than 250 ethnic groups
-eligious and regional clezvages between north (Muslim) and south (Christianity and animists)
140
# Russia
Cleavages
-between ethnic russians (80% of poplation) and minority non-Russian populations
141
# UK
Cleavges
-diffrences between nationsL Scottish, English, Welsh, Irish
-religious differences between Protestants and Catholics in N. Ireland
-raicial tensions betwee whites and non-European minorities
