AP Psychology big exam Flashcards
(288 cards)
1
Q
psychology
A
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
2
Q
functionalism
A
an early school of psychology countering structuralism that focused on how our minds and behaviors enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
3
Q
behaviorism
A
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
4
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
a German who established the first psychological laboratory in 1879
5
Q
Structuralism
A
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
6
Q
Evolutionary psychology
A
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
7
Q
Gestalt psychology
A
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
8
Q
William James
A
an American psychologist who founded functionalism
9
Q
Introspection
A
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes
10
Q
Natural selection
A
Charles Darwin’s principle that traits contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
11
Q
cognitive psychology
A
the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning
12
Q
Mary Whiton Calkins
A
the first woman president of the APA (American Psychological Association)
13
Q
Case study
A
a research method in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
14
Q
positive correlation
A
as one variable increases or decreases, so does the other in the same direction (e.g. practice and performance)
15
Q
scatterplot
A
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
16
Q
independent variable
A
in an experiment, the variable whose effect is being studied. It is what is controlled by the experimenter.
17
Q
naturalistic observation
A
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
18
Q
negative correlation
A
as one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g. stress and health)
19
Q
experimental group
A
in an experiment, the group exposed to the independent variable
20
Q
dependent variable
A
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change in response to the independent variable
21
Q
survey
A
a technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a random sample of the group
22
Q
correlation coefficient
A
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)
23
Q
control group
A
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the independent variable that serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
24
Q
random sample
A
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
25
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
26
placebo effect
a "fake" pill that has no therapeutic effect, used as a control in testing new drugs
27
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
28
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
29
operational definition
a statement of the exact procedures (or operations) used in a research study
30
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
31
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
32
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
33
replication
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
34
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
35
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
36
normal distribution
a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population.
37
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
38
signal detection theory
a theory that assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
39
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
40
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
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perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
42
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection; sometimes called the just noticeable difference (j.n.d.)
43
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
44
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
45
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
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Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)
47
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (e.g. getting used to the temperature of a pool)
48
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
49
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
50
transduction
in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights and sounds, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
51
retinal disparity
by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance; the greater the disparity (difference) between the two, the closer the object
52
vestibular sense
our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance
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rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
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optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
55
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
56
gate control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
57
cones
retinal receptor cells that detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
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trichromatic theory
the theory that the firing of red, green, and blue cones cause color vision. Also known as the Young-Helmholtz theory.
59
olfaction
the sense of smell
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perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
61
Neurons
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
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Myelin sheath
a fatty tissue that covers the axons of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
63
endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
64
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
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axon
the extension of a neuron that passes messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands
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synapse
the meeting point between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this site is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
67
acetylcholine (Ach)
a neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. With Alzheimer's disease, neurons that produce this deteriorate.
68
Hormones
chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that are carried by the bloodstream to other body tissues
69
Dendrites
a neuron's branching extensions that receive messages from other cells and conduct impulses toward the cell body
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neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
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sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
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pituitary gland
the endocrine system's most influential gland that regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. This gland is influenced by the brain's hypothalamus.
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central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord make up this division of the nervous system
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autonomic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of internal organs (like the heart)
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medulla
the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing
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limbic system
a neural system associated with emotions and drives that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. This system is located below the cerebral hemispheres.
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peripheral nervous system
all of the neurons that are not in the central nervous system. Carries information to and from the central nervous system.
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sympathetic nervous system
a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that activates nerves, glands and muscles in times of stress or threat, preparing the body for action
79
cerebellum
this brain structure coordinates movement output and balance and enables nonverbal learning and memory. It is located at the rear of the brainstem.
80
hypothalamus
a neural structure that directs eating, drinking, and body temperature, helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. It is located below the thalamus.
81
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles and voluntary movements
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parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
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thalamus
the brain's sensory control center. It directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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amygdala
two neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion, specifically aggression and fear
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hippocampus
a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories of facts and events for storage
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motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
87
parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory input for touch and body position. These lobes lie at the top of the head and toward the rear.
88
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a technique to show brain anatomy that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue
89
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
90
Broca's area
an area of the frontal lobe that controls language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech
91
temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that includes auditory areas that receive information from the ears. These lobes are roughly above the ears.
92
Functional MRI (fMRI)
these scans show brain function and structure by revealing bloodflow and comparing successive MRI scans
93
Frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex involved in speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgement. These lobes lie just behind the forehead.
94
occipital lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex that receives information from the visual fields. These lobes are located at the back of the head.
95
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
96
Positron emission tomography (PET)
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
97
Behavioral genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
98
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. The muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active in this stage.
99
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing (in which breathing stops) during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
100
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the first stimulus leads to a response in anticipation of the second stimulus
101
heritability
the extent to which differences among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes. This statistic takes a value between 0 and 1.
102
insomnia
a sleep disorder characterized by recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
103
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
104
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response
105
circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (for example, temperature and wakefulness)
106
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
107
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
108
unconditioned response (UCR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (such as salivation to food in the mouth)
109
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
110
stimulus discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)
111
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
112
schedules of reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
113
Conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
114
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
115
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
116
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
117
stimulus generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occurs in other, similar situations.)
118
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a previously extinguished conditioned response
119
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
120
observational learning
learning by observing others (also called social learning)
121
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
122
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory)
123
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
124
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system
125
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious active processing of incoming information and of information retrieved from long-term memory
126
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
127
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
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storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
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long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
130
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events
131
procedural memory
a type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills
132
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
133
long term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. This is believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
134
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
135
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
136
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
137
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
138
Mnemonic devices
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
140
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
141
Henry Molaison (Patient H.M.)
a famous patient in the history of neuroscience who, because of damage to medial temporal lobe structures, was unable to encode new, explicit memories of facts and experiences
142
Elizabeth Loftus
psychologist involved with analyzing vivid memories triggered by brain stimulation (found that seeming flashbacks appeared to be invented, not relived)
143
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
144
Concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
146
Algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
147
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
148
Availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
149
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes, which may lead us to ignore other relevant information
150
insight
a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
151
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
152
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial beliefs after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
153
framing effect
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgements
154
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
155
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
156
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
157
semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
158
syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
159
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which tends to increase with age
160
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, which tends to decrease during late adulthood
161
"g" factor
intelligence that underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
162
triarchic theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg's theory of intelligence that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative, and practical dimensions
163
creative intelligence
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
164
Divergent thinking
creative thinking that provides a number of different answers
165
convergent thinking
thinking that provides a single correct answer
166
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that indentifies clusters of related test items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score
167
Analytical intelligence
(academic-problem-solving)
traditional intelligence traits
168
practical intelligence
required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist
169
Gardner's multiple intelligences
visual/spatial
verbal/linguistic
musical/rhythmic
logical/mathematical
bodily/kinesthetic
interpersonal
interpersonal
natural
170
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
171
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. (On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.)
172
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Alfred Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age
173
Alfred Binet
French psychologist best remembered for developing the first widely used intelligence test
174
Standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
175
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
176
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
177
David Wechsler
creator of the most widely used intelligence test, WAIS, his test contains both verbal and performance (nonverbal) tests
178
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the most widely used intelligence test containing verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
179
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
180
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
181
cross sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
182
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
183
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
184
teratogens
substances that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
185
fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking
186
cognitive development
The process by which a child's understanding of the world changes due to their age and experience.
187
Jean Piaget
a developmental psychologist who studied cognition; his studies led him to believe that a child's mind develops through a series of 4 stages
188
schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
189
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
190
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
191
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
192
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not seen
193
preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
194
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
195
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
196
conservation
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
197
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
198
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation
199
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
200
authoritarian parenting
a parenting style characterized by strict rules and expected obedience
201
authoritative parenting
a parenting style characterized by demands, but warmth; these parents encourage open discuss and allow exceptions
202
permissive parenting
a parenting style characterized by few demands and little punishment
203
levels of moral reasoning
204
Erik Erikson
a developmental psychologist who contended each stage of life has its own psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution
205
trust vs. mistrust
Erikson's stage in infancy in which infants develop a sense of basic trust if needs are dependably met
206
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson's stage in adolescence in which teenagers work at refining a sense of self, or they become confused about who they are
207
integrity vs. despair
Erikson's stage in late adulthood in which adults, reflecting on their lives, may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
208
Alzheimer's disease
a neurocognitive disorder, often with onset after age 80, entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
209
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
210
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
211
instincts
an innate behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned (i.e. imprinting, rooting)
212
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive, like hunger) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
213
incentives
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
214
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs (love, esteem, and self-actualization) become active
215
self-actualization
according to Abraham Maslow, the need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
216
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli: stimulus -> arousal -> emotion
217
Cannon-Bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion
218
Two-factor theory
Schachter and Singer's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
219
Type A personality
a behavior pattern marked by a sense of time urgency, impatience, excessive competitiveness, hostility, and anger
220
type B personality
a behavior pattern marked by a relaxed, easygoing approach to life, without the urgency, impatience, and hostility of the Type A pattern
221
big five personality factors
five basic personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) from which other traits are derived
222
projective tests
a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
223
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots that seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
224
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
225
Sigmund Freud
the founder of psychoanalysis, which is a controversial theory about the workings of the unconscious mind
226
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's theory of personality that attributes childhood experiences and unconscious motivations to personality development
227
Id
according to Freud, the structure of the personality that is a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic drives
228
Ego
according to Freud, the largely conscious "executive" part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality
229
Superego
according to Freud, the part of personality that provides a sense of morality (a conscience)
230
Defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
231
repression
the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
232
reaction formation
a defense mechanism by which the ego switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites
233
projection
a defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
234
displacement
a defense mechanism that shifts impulses toward a less threatening object or person
235
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types
236
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
237
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders
238
Dunning-Kruger effect
the tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability
239
DSM-5
the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders used for classifying psychological disorders
240
Generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by pervasive anxiety not connected to any one, specific stimulus
241
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks
242
agoraphobia
fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic
243
obsessive-compulsive disorder
a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both
244
major depressive disorder
a disorder characterized by two weeks or more of low mood or loss of interest or pleasure, among other symptoms
245
bipolar disorder
a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
246
mania
a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgement is common, characteristic of bipolar disorder
247
schizophrenia
a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression
248
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
249
delusions
a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
250
dissociative identity disorder
a disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities, formerly called multiple personality disorder
251
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder
252
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety, OCD, and PTSD. Several widely used ones are SSRIs - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
253
electroconvulsive therapy
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
254
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological, rather than biological, techniques, such as psychoanalysis or exposure therapy
255
cognitive-behavioral therapy
therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
256
Rational-emotive behavioral therapy
a confrontational cognitive therapy that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions
257
systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
258
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange tokens for privileges or treats
259
Dorothea Dix
an American advocate that led the way to humane treatment for those with psychological disorders
260
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
261
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
262
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
263
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
264
Solomon Asch
social psychologist who conducted studies on conformity in which participants' estimates of line lengths were influenced by the presence of others giving incorrect answers
265
obedience
compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
266
Stanley Milgram
social psychologist who conducted studies on obedience in which participants were told by an authority figure to electrically shock another individual
267
Group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing opinions or feelings through discussion within the group
268
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic thinking in individuals
269
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
270
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
271
social norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior
272
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
273
cognitive dissonance
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
274
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
275
central route persuasion
attitude change that occurs when people focus on the content of the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
276
peripheral route persuasion
attitude change that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
277
foot-in-the-door technique
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
278
Stanford prison experiment
Philip Zimbardo's study that demonstrated the powerful impact of roles, perceived power, and toxic situations on attitudes and behaviors
279
Philip Zimbardo
social psychologist who conducted the famous Stanford Prison Experiment
280
Prejudice
an unjustifiable attitude toward a group of people and its members
281
Stereotypes
a generalized belief about a group of people
282
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
283
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
284
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
285
frustration aggression hypothesis
the principle that frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger, which can generate aggression
286
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
287
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
288
bystander effect
the tendency for any given person to be less likely to give aid to someone in need of help if other people are present
