AP World Exam Vocab Flashcards
(176 cards)
1
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Silk Road
A
Overland trade routes connecting China, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean. Spread goods (like silk/spices), religions (especially Buddhism), and diseases (like the plague). Created around 130 BCE under the Han Dynasty.
2
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Trans-Saharan Trade
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network of trade routes that crossed the Sahara Desert, connecting North Africa and the Mediterranean world with sub-Saharan Africa (specifically West Africa). Key goods traded included gold, salt, ivory, and slaves.
3
Q
Columbian Exchange
A
1492-1800 The transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World (Americas) after Columbus’s voyages. Resulted in population booms in Europe and devastation of Indigenous populations in the Americas.
4
Q
Islam
A
Founded 610 CE, Arabia. A monotheistic religion founded by the Prophet Muhammad in Mecca. It spread rapidly through trade, conquest, and missionaries (Sufis) across the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia, and parts of Southeast Asia.
5
Q
Buddhism
A
Founded 500s BCE, India. A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), promoting the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to achieve Nirvana. Spread through the Silk Roads, Ashoka’s edicts, and merchants into Central, East, and Southeast Asia.
6
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Christianity
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A monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ. Initially persecuted, it became dominant in the Roman Empire and spread through missionaries and imperial support (especially under Constantine).
7
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Hinduism
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Roughly 1500 BCE, South Asia. A polytheistic and oldest continuous religion, emphasizing reincarnation, karma, and caste. Deeply tied to Indian society and rarely spread far beyond South Asia.
8
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Judaism
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One of the earliest monotheistic religions, originating with the Hebrews. Focused on a covenant with God and following Jewish law. Spread mainly through diaspora caused by conquests (Babylonians, Romans).
9
Q
Feudalism
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800s-1400s, Japan and Europe. A decentralized political system where land was exchanged for military service. Dominated medieval Europe and Japan; lords ruled over serfs and vassals.
10
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Crusades
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1095-1291. A series of religious wars initiated by the Catholic Church to reclaim the Holy Land. Led to increased trade and cultural exchange between Europe and the Islamic world.
11
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Black Death
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A deadly plague that spread from Asia to Europe via trade routes, killing 1/3 of Europe’s population. Resulted in social upheaval and weakened feudalism.
12
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Renaissance
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1300s-1600s, Europe. A cultural rebirth beginning in Italy that emphasized humanism, classical learning, art, and secularism. Influenced politics, science, and religion. Many famous artists, writers, and thinkers, like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare, thrived during this era.
13
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Protestant Reformation
A
1517-1648. 6th-century religious movement in Europe that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the creation of various Protestant denominations. Key figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin sparked the movement with their critiques of church practices and doctrines. Led to the creation of Protestant churches and religious conflict in Europe.
14
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Atlantic Slave Trade
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1500-1800s. Part of the triangular trade; millions of Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas. Created racial hierarchies and devastated African societies.
15
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A
16
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Enlightenment
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1700s. .
a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, secularism, and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents include Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith.
17
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Industrial Revolution
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1750-1900. A shift from agrarian economies to industrialized societies starting in Britain. Led to urbanization, class changes, imperialism, and global environmental impacts. Mechanized manufacturing, factory system, and large scale industry.
18
Q
Capitalism
A
An economic system where trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit. Supported by Enlightenment thinkers like Adam Smith.
19
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Imperialism
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1800s-1900s. European powers expanded overseas to acquire colonies, raw materials, and markets through force. Justified with ideas like Social Darwinism and the “White Man’s Burden.”
20
Q
Nationalism
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A political ideology that stresses loyalty to a nation. Inspired unification movements (Germany, Italy) and independence struggles (Latin America, Africa).
21
Q
WW1
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1914-1918. AKA the Great War. Global conflict due to militarism (arms race), alliances, imperialism, nationalism, and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand heir of the Austro-Hungarian throne–killed by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist.
22
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Central Powers
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Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire. Fought at the Eastern and Western Fronts using trench warfare, machine guns, and chemical weapons.
23
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Triple Entente.
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AKA the Allied powers, initially known as the Triple Entente, consisting of Great Britain, France, and Russia.
24
Q
Ottoman Empire
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1299-1922. A powerful Islamic empire based in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) that expanded into the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeastern Europe. Known for religious tolerance through the millet system, strong military (janissaries), and cultural achievements. It controlled key trade routes and was a major Islamic power until its decline post-WWI.
25
Ming Dynasty
1368-1644/ Chinese dynasty that restored native Han rule after the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Famous for the voyages of Zheng He, rebuilding the Great Wall, and strengthening Confucian bureaucracy through the civil service exam. Isolationism later weakened China’s global influence.
26
Qing Dynasty
1644-1912. The last imperial dynasty of China, ruled by the Manchus. Expanded China’s territory significantly, but faced internal unrest (Taiping Rebellion) and external pressure from European imperialism, particularly during the Opium Wars.
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Taiping Rebellion
A massive civil war and peasant uprisings in Qing China led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus. Fueled by social and economic inequality, it weakened the Qing and led to millions of deaths.
28
Opium Wars
Conflicts between Britain and China over Britain’s sale of opium. Resulted in humiliating defeats for China and the signing of “unequal treaties” like the Treaty of Nanjing, giving Britain access to ports and control over Hong Kong.
29
Tokugawa Shogunate
1600-1868 A feudal military government in Japan that centralized power under the shogun and enforced a strict class hierarchy. Instituted a policy of isolation (sakoku), restricting foreign influence and trade except through the Dutch and Chinese in Nagasaki.
30
Scientific Revolution
1500s-1600s. A period of major scientific discoveries that challenged traditional views of the universe. Key figures include Copernicus (heliocentrism), Galileo (astronomy), and Newton (laws of motion). It laid the groundwork for modern science and influenced Enlightenment thought.
31
Triangular Trade
A three-part trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Europeans traded manufactured goods to Africa, enslaved Africans were shipped to the Americas (Middle Passage), and American colonies sent raw materials back to Europe.
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Mercantilism
An economic theory dominant in the 16th–18th centuries that emphasized accumulating wealth (especially gold and silver) through a favorable balance of trade and colonial expansion. Colonies existed to benefit the mother country economically.
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Gunpowder Empires
Refers to the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires (16th–18th centuries), which used gunpowder weaponry to expand and consolidate their rule. These Islamic empires blended military power with cultural achievements and religious diversity.
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Safavid Empire
1501-1736. A Persian (Iranian) Shia Muslim empire that rivaled the Sunni Ottomans. Known for promoting Shi’a Islam, architectural achievements, and cultural flourishing, but also for conflict with its neighbors.
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Mughal Empire
1526-1857. A Muslim empire in India founded by Babur. Akbar promoted religious tolerance and centralized administration. Later rulers like Aurangzeb reversed tolerance, leading to increased tensions. The empire declined with the rise of British colonization.
36
American Revolution
The American Revolution was a war fought between 1775 and 1783 where 13 British North American colonies rebelled against Great Britain, ultimately achieving independence and establishing the United States of America.
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Shi'a vs Sunni Islam
Two main branches of Islam. Sunni Muslims believe that the rightful successor should be chosen through consensus and community leadership, while Shia Muslims believe that the leadership should have been passed down through the Prophet's family line, specifically Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali.
38
French Revolution
a period of social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, driven by Enlightenment ideals and the desire to overthrow the monarchy. This revolution dismantled the old regime, leading to a republic, and ultimately to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Inspired by the American Revolution.
39
Haitian Revolution
1791. Only successful slave revolt in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) that led to the abolition of slavery and the establishment of the first independent black republic in the Americas. It was a complex and multifaceted event, influenced by the French Revolution and the desire for independence and self-determination.Led by Toussaint L'Ouverture.
40
Latin American Revolutions
1810s-1820s. Independence from Spain/Portugal. Caused by Enlightenment ideals, previous revolutions, nad growing resentment of creole elites. Series of wars which resulted in independence of most of Latin America.
41
Meiji Restoration
1868. A political revolution in Japan that restored imperial rule under Emperor Meiji. It launched rapid modernization, industrialization, and militarization, allowing Japan to become a major world power by the early 20th century.
42
Berlin Conference
1884-1885. A meeting of European powers to divide Africa into colonies without African input. Set rules for imperialism and led to the "Scramble for Africa," disrupting African societies and borders.
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Scramble for Africa
the rapid and intense period of European colonization of the African continent, primarily between the 1880s and the start of World War I in 1914. Driven by economic interests, nationalism, and a desire for prestige, European powers like Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium competed to establish colonies and spheres of influence across Africa.
44
Social Darwinism
A misapplication of Darwin’s theories used to justify imperialism, racism, and inequality. Claimed that stronger nations or races naturally dominated weaker ones.
45
Sepoy Rebellion
1857. An uprising by Indian soldiers (sepoys) against British rule. Caused by cultural insensitivity and British exploitation. After the rebellion, the British government took direct control of India from the British East India Company.
46
White Man's Burden
A poem by Rudyard Kipling that became a slogan justifying European imperialism as a moral duty to "civilize" non-European peoples.
47
Suez Canal
Finished in 1869. A man-made waterway in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Shortened trade routes between Europe and Asia, making it vital to British imperial interests, especially in India.
48
Open Door Policy
1899. U.S. policy proposing equal trading rights for all nations in China and support for Chinese territorial integrity. Aimed to prevent European powers from carving China into exclusive spheres of influence.
49
Boxer Rebellion
1899-190. A nationalist uprising in China against foreign influence and Christian missionaries. Crushed by an international coalition, it further weakened the Qing dynasty.
50
Russo-Japanese War
1904-1905. Conflict between Russia and Japan over imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. Japan’s victory shocked the world and demonstrated the success of Meiji modernization.
51
Treaty of Versailles
1919. Peace treaty ending WWI. Blamed Germany for the war, imposed harsh reparations, and redrew European borders. Contributed to economic hardship and the rise of fascism in Germany.
52
Mongol Empire
1206-1368. The largest contiguous land empire in history, created by Chinggis (Genghis) Khan. It connected Eurasia through conquest, trade (Pax Mongolica), and cultural exchange. Though brutal in warfare, the Mongols also promoted religious tolerance and facilitated Silk Road trade.
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Chinggis Khan
Lived 1162-1227. Founder of the Mongol Empire. United the Mongol tribes and led conquests across Central Asia, the Middle East, and China. Known for military genius, use of terror, and meritocratic leadership.
54
Pax Mongolica
A period of peace and stability under Mongol rule that allowed trade, ideas, and people to move freely across Eurasia. Helped spread technologies (gunpowder, paper), religions, and the Black Death.
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Yuan Dynasty
Mongol-led dynasty in China established by Kublai Khan. Adopted Chinese administrative practices but maintained Mongol elite dominance. Eventually overthrown by the native Ming Dynasty.
56
Marco Polo
1254-1324. A Venetian merchant who traveled to Yuan China and served in Kublai Khan’s court. His writings introduced Europe to Asian riches and helped spark interest in exploration.
57
Ibn Battuta
1304-1369. A Muslim Moroccan traveler who journeyed across the Islamic world from North Africa to Southeast Asia. His travel accounts provide valuable insight into Dar al-Islam and regional cultures.
58
Zheng He
1371-1433. A Chinese Muslim admiral who led seven massive naval expeditions under the Ming Dynasty. Traveled to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa, promoting Chinese power — but his voyages ended when China turned inward.
59
Dar al-Islam
Arabic for “the house of Islam,” referring to areas under Muslim control where Islamic law prevails. A connected cultural zone where Islam spread through trade, scholarship, and Sufism.
60
Caliphate
An Islamic government led by a caliph — the religious and political successor to Muhammad. Major caliphates included the Umayyad, Abbasid, and later the Ottoman Caliphate.
61
House of Wisdom
In Baghdad, capital. A major center of learning under the Abbasid Caliphate where scholars translated Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic. Helped preserve classical knowledge and advance science, medicine, and math.
62
Confucius
Confucius was a Chinese philosopher and teacher who lived around 551-479 BCE. He is known for his ethical and social teachings, which are the foundation of Confucianism. Confucianism emphasizes principles like respect, kindness, and the importance of social harmony.
63
Neo-Confucianism
A revival and synthesis of Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist ideas. Promoted order and hierarchy. Dominated education and civil service in imperial China.
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Civil Service Exam (China)
A rigorous test system based on Confucian classics used to select bureaucrats. Promoted meritocracy and social mobility (in theory), but often limited to elite males.
65
Footbinding
Common in the Song and Qing Dynasties. A Chinese practice of tightly binding young girls’ feet to restrict growth. Signified wealth and femininity, but also reinforced gender inequality and social control.
66
Delhi Sultanate
1206-1526. A Muslim kingdom in Northern India established by Turkish invaders. Introduced Islam to India, clashed with Hindu kingdoms, and laid groundwork for later Mughal rule.
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Timbuktu
1300s-1600s. A major West African city and center of Islamic learning and trade in the Mali Empire. Home to universities and libraries that attracted scholars from across the Muslim world.
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Mansa Musa
1312-1337. King of Mali, remembered for his extravagant hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) and immense wealth. Helped spread Islam and put Mali on European maps.
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Trans-Saharan Trade
Trade routes connecting West Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean. Carried gold, salt, and slaves. Islam spread along these routes with camel caravans.
70
Swahili Coast
East Africa. A region of city-states (Kilwa, Mombasa, etc.) that traded with Arabs, Indians, and Chinese. Swahili culture blended African, Arab, and Islamic elements.
71
Great Zimbabwe
1100-1400s. A powerful Bantu-speaking kingdom in southern Africa. Known for stone architecture and control of gold trade routes. Declined due to environmental and political pressures.
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Aztec Empire
1300-1521. A Mesoamerican empire centered in Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City). Practiced human sacrifice, developed a tribute system, and were conquered by Hernán Cortés and the Spanish.
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Inca Empire
1438-1533. A South American empire in the Andes known for its road system, quipu (knot record system), and centralized bureaucracy. Conquered by Francisco Pizarro.
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Quipu
A system of knotted strings used by the Incas to record numerical information — a form of non-written communication and accounting.
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Mit'a system
A labor tax system in the Inca Empire where citizens performed state-required labor, later adopted and abused by the Spanish.
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Syncretism
The blending of different religious or cultural traditions. Examples: Sikhism, Swahili culture, Neo-Confucianism, and Vodun (voodoo).
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Creoles
People of European descent born in the Americas. Often resented Peninsulares (Europe-born elites) and played key roles in Latin American revolutions.
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Peninsulares
Europe-born Spaniards or Portuguese who lived in the colonies. Held the highest political and social positions in Latin American colonial society.
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Encomienda system
A Spanish colonial labor system where colonists were granted control over Indigenous labor in exchange for “protecting” and converting them. Led to exploitation and depopulation.
80
Indentured Servitude
A labor system where people worked for a set period (usually 5–7 years) in exchange for passage to the New World. Used widely before African slavery became dominant.
81
Manorialism
A medieval European economic system where peasants lived on and worked the land of a lord’s estate in exchange for protection. The economic base of feudalism.
82
Great Schism
1054. The formal split between the Roman Catholic Church (West) and Eastern Orthodox Church (East). Stemmed from political, linguistic, and theological disputes.
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Schism of 1378.
Western Schism. A division within the Catholic Church where multiple popes claimed authority. Weakened Church influence and set the stage for the Protestant Reformation.
84
Caravel
A small, fast Portuguese sailing ship developed in the 15th century. Key to European exploration and expansion.
85
Astrolabe
A navigational instrument used to determine latitude by measuring the angle of stars. Borrowed from Islamic world, vital for maritime exploration.
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Printing Press
Invented by Gutenberg around 1450. Revolutionized communication in Europe by making books (like the Bible) cheaper and more accessible. Helped spread Reformation and scientific ideas.
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Joint-Stock Company
Businesses owned by shareholders who invested in exploration and colonization. Reduced risk and funded ventures like the British East India Company.
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British East India Company (1600-1874)
A powerful joint-stock company that controlled trade in India. Became a political force, eventually ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent.
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Absolutism
A political system where a monarch holds total control over the state. Justified by divine right (e.g., Louis XIV of France, Peter the Great of Russia).
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Louis XIV
1643-1715. French king who ruled as an absolute monarch. Built the Palace of Versailles and centralized power, famously saying “L’état, c’est moi” (I am the state).
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Peter the Great
Peter 3. 1682-1725. Russian tsar who westernized Russia, expanded its empire, and modernized the military. Built St. Petersburg as a “window to the West.”
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Thirty Years' War
1618-1648. A devastating European religious war between Catholics and Protestants. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which allowed rulers to choose their state’s religion.
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Peace of Westphalia
1648. Treaty ending the Thirty Years' War. Established the modern concept of state sovereignty and a balance of power in Europe.
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Glorious Revolution
1688. A bloodless coup in England that replaced James II with William and Mary. Led to the English Bill of Rights and a constitutional monarchy.
95
Seven Years' War
1756-1763. A global conflict between European powers (called the French and Indian War in North America). Britain emerged dominant, gaining territory but increasing colonial tensions.
96
Napoleon Bonaparte
1769-1821. French military leader who rose during the Revolution and declared himself emperor. Spread revolutionary ideals across Europe but was defeated in 1815.
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Congress of Vienna
1815. A meeting of European leaders after Napoleon’s defeat to restore the balance of power and prevent future revolutions. Reinstituted monarchies and redrew borders.
98
Toussaint L'Ouverture
Leader of the Haitian Revolution. A formerly enslaved man who led enslaved people to independence from France.
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Simon Bolivar
Creole leader of independence movements in South America. Helped free Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia from Spanish rule. Inspired by Enlightenment ideals.
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Capitalism
An economic system based on private ownership and profit motive. Promoted by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations (1776). Key during industrialization.
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Socialism
A response to capitalism’s inequality. Advocates state control of production and more equitable distribution of wealth. Varied from democratic to radical (Marxist) versions.
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Karl Marx
German philosopher who co-authored The Communist Manifesto (1848). Believed class struggle would lead to a worker-led revolution and a classless, stateless society.
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Communism
political and economic system where all property is publicly owned, and each person works and is paid according to their needs. Rooted in Marxist theory.
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Second Industrial Revolution
1850-1900. Wave of industrialization focused on steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil. Centered in the U.S., Germany, and Japan. Brought new inventions and mass production.
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Treaty of Nanjing
Ended the First Opium War. Forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain and open ports to trade. Beginning of the "Century of Humiliation."
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Self Strengthening Movement
China, 1860s-1890s. Qing Dynasty reforms that attempted to modernize the military and economy using Western technology while preserving Confucian values. Largely unsuccessful.
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Boer Wars
Fought between British and Dutch settlers (Boers) in South Africa over control of territory and resources. Led to British dominance and the creation of apartheid structures.
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Proletariat
A new class of wage laborers in factories during industrialization. Lacked property and often lived in poor urban conditions.
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Bourgeoisie
Middle class. Grew during the Industrial Revolution. Included professionals and factory owners who valued education and private property.
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Seneca Falls Convention
1848. First women’s rights convention in the U.S. NY. Issued the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights, especially suffrage.
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Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
1789. French revolutionary document asserting natural rights, equality, and the sovereignty of the people. Heavily influenced by Enlightenment thought.
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Reign of Terror
1793-1794. Radical phase of the French Revolution under Robespierre. Thousands executed by guillotine in the name of purging enemies of the revolution.
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John Locke
English philosopher who argued that all people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Advocated government by consent.
114
Trench Warfare
A type of fighting where soldiers lived and fought in deep trenches. Characterized WWI, especially on the Western Front, and led to massive casualties and stalemates.
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Total War
A war that requires all of a society’s resources and people. Both WWI and WWII involved government control of economies, rationing, and targeting civilian infrastructure.
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League of Nations
An international organization formed after WWI to maintain peace. Lacked power, and the U.S. never joined. Failed to prevent WWII.
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Russian Revolution
1917. Overthrew Tsar Nicholas II during WWI. Led to the rise of the Bolsheviks under Lenin and the world’s first communist state, the Soviet Union.
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Vladimir Lenin.
Leader of the Bolshevik Party. Established the USSR and pulled Russia out of WWI with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Promised “peace, land, and bread.”
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Joseph Stalin
Dictator of the Soviet Union after Lenin. Ruled with terror, collectivized agriculture, led the USSR during WWII, and started the Cold War.
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Five-Year Plans
Soviet economic policies under Stalin to rapidly industrialize the USSR. Led to increased production but widespread famine and repression.
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Fascism
Authoritarian, nationalistic political ideology. Emphasized loyalty to the state and leader (e.g., Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany).
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Benito Mussolini
Founder of fascism and dictator of Italy (1922–1943). Allied with Nazi Germany in WWII.
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Adolf Hitler
Leader of Nazi Germany. Rose to power during Germany’s post-WWI crisis. Started WWII and led the Holocaust.
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Holocaust
Genocide during WWII where 6 million Jews and millions of others (Roma, disabled, homosexuals) were murdered by the Nazis in concentration camps.
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appeasement
Policy of giving in to Hitler’s demands to avoid war. Most notably at the Munich Conference (1938). Failed to prevent WWII.
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Pearl Harbor
1941. Surprise attack by Japan on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii. Led to U.S. entry into WWII.
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D-Day.
June 6th, 1944. AKA Operation Overlord. Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France. Turning point in WWII leading to the defeat of Germany.
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Atomic Bomb
In response to the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. dropped nuclear bombs on Japan, ending WWII in the Pacific. Marked the start of the nuclear age.This was Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
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United Nations
1945-present day. International organization formed after WWII to promote peace, human rights, and cooperation. Stronger than the League of Nations.
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Cold War
1947-1991. Period of intense geopolitical tension and rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. Did not involve direct military conflict but involved struggle for influence and an arms race to develop the first nuclear bomb.
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NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Military alliance of Western democracies created to resist Soviet aggression. Consisted of the US, Canada, France, UK, and other countries.
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Warsaw Pact
Soviet-led military alliance of Eastern Bloc countries formed in response to NATO.
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Iron Curtain
Term used by Winston Churchill to describe the divide between communist Eastern Europe and democratic Western Europe.
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Berlin Wall
1961-1989. Symbol of Cold War division. Built by East Germany to stop East Berliners from fleeing to the West.
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Korean War
1950-1953. First Cold War conflict. North (communist) vs. South (U.S.-backed). Ended in stalemate and a divided Korea.
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Vietnam War
1955-1975. Another Cold War conflict. The U.S. tried to stop the spread of communism. Ended with communist North Vietnam victory.
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Cuban Missile Crisis
1962. The Cuban Missile Crisis, a 13-day standoff in October 1962, brought the United States and the Soviet Union to the brink of nuclear war. The crisis arose when the Soviets secretly installed nuclear missiles in Cuba, posing a direct threat to the US. President John F. Kennedy responded with a blockade of Cuba, and after tense negotiations it was resolved diplomatically.
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Decolonization
1945-1975. Process of former colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East gaining independence after WWII. Often led by nationalist leaders.
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Indian Independence
1947. Britain granted independence to India after a nonviolent campaign led by Gandhi. Partitioned into India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim), causing massive violence.
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Mahatma Gandhi
Leader of India’s independence movement. Used nonviolence and civil disobedience (e.g., Salt March) to challenge British rule.
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Partition of India
1947. Split British India into India and Pakistan. Caused mass migrations and sectarian violence between Hindus and Muslims.
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Nelson Mandela
Leader of the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa. Imprisoned for 27 years. Became the first Black president of South Africa in 1994.
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Apartheid
Racist legal system in South Africa that segregated and oppressed non white citizens. Dismantled in the 1990s.
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Chinese Communist Revolution
1949. Led by Mao Zedong. Overthrew the Nationalists and established the People’s Republic of China, a one-party communist state.
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Mao Zedong
Leader of the Chinese Communist Party. Implemented the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution—both caused mass suffering.
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Great Leap Forward
Mao’s failed attempt to rapidly industrialize and collectivize China. Caused a massive famine that killed millions.
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European Union
EU. Economic and political union of European countries. Promotes trade, open borders, and shared currency (euro for many).
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Arab Spring
Series of pro-democracy uprisings across the Arab world. Overthrew leaders in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya but had mixed results.
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Hernan Cortez
Spanish conquistador known for conquering the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. He led an expedition to Mexico in 1519, forming alliances with rival tribes to overcome the Aztec army and capital, Tenochtitlán. Cortés's actions, including the spread of disease like smallpox, resulted in the collapse of the Aztec civilization.
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Francisco Pizarro
Spanish explorer who conquered Peru and, after assassinating Emperor Atahualpa, conquered the Inca Empire and claimed its territories on behalf of the Spanish crown.
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Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who, under Spanish sponsorship, led four voyages across the Atlantic, initiating European colonization and exploration of the Americas. He mistakenly believed he had reached Asia, not the Americas, leading to a series of voyages that ultimately opened up the New World to European powers.
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Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths are a cornerstone of Buddhist teachings, outlining the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path to achieve it.
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Eightfold path
The Eightfold Path in Buddhism is a guide to ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom, leading to the cessation of suffering and ultimately, enlightenment.
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Filial piety
In Confucian thought, filial piety is a central virtue that emphasizes love, respect, and support for one’s parents and ancestors. Additionally, it stresses that followers display courtesy, ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers, and carry out the proper sacrifices after a parent’s death.
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Bhakti Movement
significant religious movement in India, primarily within Hinduism, that emphasized devotion to a personal god or deity as the path to salvation. It started in India and spread across the subcontinent. Bhakti centered on the belief that through intense love and devotion, individuals could achieve spiritual liberation.
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Serfdom
condition in medieval Europe in which a tenant farmer was bound to a hereditary plot of land and to the will of his landlord. The vast majority of serfs in medieval Europe obtained their subsistence by cultivating a plot of land that was owned by a lord.
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Indian ocean trade
condition in medieval Europe in which a tenant farmer was bound to a hereditary plot of land and to the will of his landlord. The vast majority of serfs in medieval Europe obtained their subsistence by cultivating a plot of land that was owned by a lord.
158
Inca roads
Around 25,000 miles of roads connected the Inca Empire (1438 – 1533). As with many of the world’s empires at this time, the Incas required a way to effectively maintain control, move armies, and facilitate trade across their territories. The result was one of the most impressive feats in pre-Colombian history.
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Ivan IV
AKA Ivan the Terrible. Tsar of Russia, reigning from 1547 to 1584. His reign was marked by significant territorial expansion, the consolidation of central power, and also by periods of intense repression and paranoia. He is known for his military conquests, including the capture of Kazan and Astrakhan, and for his controversial Oprichnina period
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95 Theses
written by Martin Luther in 1517, challenged the Roman Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences, which were certificates that supposedly reduced temporal punishment in purgatory. Luther's core argument was that salvation is achieved through faith alone, not through good works or the purchase of indulgences. He also questioned the Pope's authority over purgatory and the church's financial practices.
161
United Fruit Company
An American multinational corporation that traded in tropical fruit (primarily bananas) grown on Latin American plantations and sold in the United States and Europe.
162
East India Company
British joint-stock company founded in 1600, initially to trade in the Indian Ocean region and later expanding its influence and control in India and Southeast Asia. It became a major player in global trade, eventually transforming from a trading company into a powerful colonial entity, wielding military and political authority.
163
Montesquieu
prominent Enlightenment thinker, is best known for his theory of the separation of powers, which profoundly influenced the design of the U.S. Constitution. He argued that to prevent tyranny, the legislative, executive, and judicial powers should be divided among separate branches of government.
164
Great Depression
severe global economic downturn that lasted from 1929 to 1939, marked by widespread unemployment, poverty, and a sharp decline in industrial production
165
Mandate of Heaven
Chinese concept that legitimized rulers' authority by claiming it was granted by Heaven (a divine force)
166
Scholar Gentry
167
Paris Peace Conference
a meeting of allied powers to negotiate peace after World War I, culminating in the Treaty of Versailles.
168
Treblinka
One of the deadliest extermination camps using carbon monoxide gas chambers.
169
Spanish civil war
military conflict between the Republicans (loyalists to the Second Spanish Republic) and the Nationalists (right-wing rebels). The war was fought with great ferocity, leading to about 500,000 deaths. The Nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, ultimately won, and Franco ruled Spain as a dictator until his death in 1975.
170
7 years war
also known as the French and Indian War in North America, was a global conflict (1756-1763) primarily between Great Britain and France. It involved disputes over colonial territories and trade, and encompassed battles in Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America.
171
100 years war
Conflict between the kingdoms of England and France and a civil war in France during the Late Middle Ages. It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy of Aquitaine and was triggered by a claim to the French throne made by Edward III of England.
172
Muhammad
Muhammad was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.
173
World War 2
September 1939-September 1945. The war was ignited by Germany's invasion of Poland and ended with Japan's surrender following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
174
Axis Powers
The Axis, led by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan, opposed the Allies.
175
Allied Powers
U.S., Great Britain, USSR, France, China, etc
176
Collectivization
state-owned or collective ownership of farmland, transitioning from private farms to state-controlled entities. performed under stalin in the soviet union and china by mao zedong.
