APA2302 midterm review Flashcards
Where did the biathlon start? What was the purpose of it? Which country used it in world war 2?
Norway
It was created to be a military exercise
Finland used it against russia
What is the definition of sportifacts?
who won what, where, and by how much?
What is the definition of sport history?
The study of change, or the lack of change, over time
What is the difference between microhistory and macrohistory?
Microhistory
Historical study or interpretation about
one very specific event, context, or time
period
Macrohistory
Historical study or interpretation of a
broad time period, global perspective,
using big data, attempting to paint a
wide picture of the past and its
interpretation
What is the definition of sport?
What are 4 key characteristics of sport?
“institutionalised competitive activities that
involve vigorous physical exertion or the
use of relatively complex physical skills by
participants motivated by intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards” (Coakley, 2003)
Socially constructed
Governing body
Competitive
Institutionalized (standardized rules,
regulatory agencies, formal play/sport,
technical aspects are important)
What is the difference between play and dramatic spectacle?
Play: involves expressive activity done for its own sake and is often spontaneous
Dramatic spectacle: involves performances designed to entertain an audience for the purposes of obtaining rewards
What is the definition of physical activity?
What are the 4 main types of physical activity?
Physical activity as any bodily movement
produced by skeletal muscles that requires
energy expenditure. (WHO, 2021)
Transport, recreational, working, and
domestic (Nolin, 2014)
What is the similarity and difference between sport and physical activity?
PA is socially constructed, like sport, and
shaped by the field of health
Definition, meaning, and legitimacy are
constantly debated
Less contested activities than sports
What are 6 key characteristics of pre-modern sport?
not very organized
simple rules based on local traditions
local competition but no more
low role differentiation
limited public information
no statistical record
What are 6 key characteristics of modern sport?
Formally organized (local, regional, national)
Standardized rules
National and international competition
high role differentiation
information public reported often
detailed statistical record
What are 5 reasons that sporting history is important?
Sporting memory for a specific group, nation, etc.
Evidence to set events in their contexts, explain forces/reasons for why events occurred
Gives us perspective – trends and fluctuations (not everything is important forever)
Benchmarks to measure progress (or lack thereof)
Gives us a sense of where sport may be headed (the sporting past has shaped the
present)
What is the definition of a primary source?
Documents, materials, etc. that come from
the time period you are studying
From the horses’ mouth, so to speak
What is the definition of a secondary source?
Sources that have been written about the
time period or event of interest
Influenced by interpretation of those
producing the sources, the time in which
they are produced, etc.
What is the definition of historiography?
Understanding and analyzing historical sources and the role of the sources
What is the definition of a tertiary source?
Sources that identify and locate primary
and secondary sources
E.g. bibliographies, indexes, etc.
**Note: secondary and tertiary sources are
not mutually exclusive!
What is the difference between descriptive and interpretive history?
Changes that happened
vs.
the interpretation of those changes
What is positionality?
Describes an individual’s worldview
Describes how the individual approaches a task/topic, and its social and political context
Social science is rarely value-free – we always bring ourselves to a project, discussion, or
topic
Positionality is complex, and it can take time to learn about yourself and your beliefs/understandings of the world
What is the “sport as it was” approach?
“Sport as it was” is an example of descriptive history, where historians try to determine the facts “as they were” (i.e., the one truth). This is in contrast to interpretive history, which typically takes the approach that there is not only one truth, but multiple histories because of different perspectives/experiences/etc
What is the difference between the past and history?
‘The past’ is completed and can never be changed, but ‘history’ is the ongoing discussion of trying to explain the past and is open to change and revision.
Is there objective truth in sport history?
There is no objective “truth” necessarily
History is about interpretation, understanding the past through our own unique lenses and
theories
What is the difference between social history and cultural history?
Social history – modernization and technological
advancement = human progress
Study of social mechanisms which govern human relations and events
Cultural history - postmodernism (no objective
truth/reality, technology ≠ vehicle of progress, no
cause & effect)
Study of peoples’ beliefs, understandings, motivations
What philosophy is conflict theory typically associated with?
What are 6 key points of this philosophy?
Conflict theory is typically associated with Marxism/neo-Marxism
Society is a system of structures & relationships shaped by economic forces
The root of much of his theory is that history is determined by social and cultural conflict
Class conflict is his central focus
Central to Marxism is the critique of capitalism and the mode of production
Capitalists exploit the labour of the proletariat (working classes)
This creates the class conflict:
1) one group controlling production
2) the other selling their labour (which they don’t control)
What were the 6 contributions of Max Weber to conflict theory?
He argues that capitalism was born of Protestant
Puritanism in the United States
■ Success generated through one’s work showed their special place in God’s eyes
■ Wealth wasn’t supposed to be the reward but
rather proof of their hard work and dedication,
and in turn, would lead to their place in heaven
Religious focused lessened, drive for material gain remained
Capitalism is the unending quest for “more”
Spending, production, profit, etc.
Leads to “goal-rational action” where people are driven by capitalist goals
According to Weber, conflict is not only economic, but about ideas as well
How is the conflict theory of Marx and Weber related to sport?
Sports are studied in terms of how they promote economic exploitation and capitalist expansion
Marx and Weber have inspired significant discussion and thinking about sport in society.
Marx:
How does sport reproduce social class conflict and division?
Do some forms of sport exploit athletes?
Weber:
Life (and therefore sport) as goal-oriented
Sport as performance driven, straying too far from play and spontaneity?
What are 3 weaknesses of conflict theory?
All social life is not “economically determined”
Does not place enough emphasis on gender, race & ethnicity, age, & other factors in social life
Is often so concerned about conflict, does not see where creativity exists, where play exists, where the joys of sport (and arguably aspects of capitalism) exist
What is the core tenet of critical theory?
At its core, critical theories are focused on power and inequality, and challenge us to question why things are the way they are
Nothing is “normal”, normalcy is a construct
Much of this theoretical perspective started with language
Language is not absolute, or natural; it is socially and culturally constructed
What are 4 societal narratives that critical theory questions?
Critical theory challenges grand narratives of society;
Male dominance (patriarchy)
White superiority
Ableism
History—as if there is only one correct history
We can extend this way of thinking about “what is normal” to all aspects of our social world;
Rational world vs irrational: who defines rational?
Civilized vs uncivilized? Western supremacy, inferior other—the east
What are 4 ways that critical theory relates to sports?
Struggles over the organization & meaning of sports
The narratives and images people use to construct and give meaning to sports
Whose voices and perspectives are used in
narratives about sports in society
How dominant narratives, images, and power
relations can be disrupted to promote progressive change
What is the definition of culture?
What are the 2 main influences of cultural studies?
Culture is the “symbolic forms and the everyday
practices through which people express and experience meaning” (Hall et al., 1991, p. 31)
Cultural studies have two main influences:
Antonio Gramsci and his perspectives on power, most notably idea of hegemony
Hegemony offers new ways of thinking of resistance, human agency and coercion
Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies
Interested not only in “high” culture (literature, arts, etc.) but also “mass” culture (popular music, television, sport, etc.)
What is the definition of hegemony?
Why does it succeed?
What is it a combination of?
“domination by a group where their beliefs, expectations, values, worldview become the norm” (Krane, 2018, p. 243)
- Succeeds because the status quo is not
questioned (‘common sense’) - Combination of coercion from dominant group and consent of subordinate group
What is the definition of critical feminist theory?
How does it relate to sport?
Critical feminist theory interrogates the very idea of gender
What are gender norms?
What are the power structures that perpetuate these norms and why?
Social life is pervasively gendered
Sports are gendered activities grounded primarily in the values and experiences of men with power and influence
Research focuses how sports reproduce gendered ideas and practices related to physicality, sexuality, and the body
Those who use them study:
How sports are involved in the production of ideas about masculinity and femininity
How women are represented in media coverage of sports
Strategies used by women to resist or challenge dominant gender ideology
What is the definition of critical race theory?
How does it relate to sport?
Centralizing race, while recognizing its relationship with other forms of oppression
Challenging dominant ideologies (objectivity, color-blindness, race-neutrality, meritocracy, etc.)
Concerned with justice and transformation
For those studying sport, this is valuable:
Construction of whiteness as natural, non-raced?
Constructions of performance based racial expectations
Racism in sport
Sport as a platform for racial justice?
What is the definition of critical disability theory?
How does it relate to sport?
Analyzes disability as a cultural, historical, political, and social phenomenon
Focuses on disrupting power relations
Social justice lens
Uncover and describe constructions of disability, and investigate the impacts of these constructions
Those who use this perspective ask;
How are sport systems ableist?
What are societal, structural, etc. barriers for
participation in disability sport?
How does power relate to sport?
(Coakley)
“Just as the dominant class writes history, that same class writes the story of sport”
Explains the multitude of sport “histories”
different locations, cultures, time periods,
personal experiences, etc.
Power = influence over society, including sport
Power must be investigated to understand the variety of sporting experiences
What were the 4 main sporting locations in ancient greece?
Olympia, Nemea, Delphi and Isthmia
What is the difference between naturalistic and anti-naturalistic philosophies on physical education?
- Naturalistic – people should be balanced between body and mind
- Antinaturalistic – the mind is of main importance, the body holds it back
What is the definition of dualism?
Why was it important for the ancient greeks?
- Dualism
- Separation of our existence into two components - mind and body
For the Greeks: mind and body were important – work to develop the mind and a fit physique
What is the definition of humanism?
How does it relate to the ancient greeks?
- Concern for one’s total welfare is central
- For the Greeks: concerned about their existence as humans, much like we are
today, less spiritual than other times in history (middle ages, for instance)
What did the greeks think of their gods?
- Greeks saw their Gods as idealized forms of human existence
- Aesthetically perfect images/depictions of masculinity and femininity, for instance
- Physical activity was a way for people to look like their gods
What were the philosophies of socrates, plato and aristotle on the body
Plato was Socrates’ student
- Both subscribed to dualism, where the mind was more important. and the body held the mind back from its potential
- Therefore, focus on knowledge and intelligence over physical training?
- However, Plato also advocated for a more balanced curriculum (and they were athletes)
- “gymnastics for the body and music for the soul”
- Aristotle – student of Plato
- The body was a valid source of knowledge
- Athletics were important because healthy body = healthy mind,
gymnastics were necessary
What is the definition of arete?
concept that refers to excellence of any kind (athletic, intellectual, spiritual, etc.), moral virtue, and the full realization of potential
- Arete is not something to achieve – it is the striving for excellence/virtue that sets it apart
- Defined slightly differently depending on location (i.e. Sparta – military excellence)
What is the definition of agon?
a meeting place where athletic events are held, evolved over time to include art, music, poetry, etc.
What is the definition of kalokagathia?
importance of developing mind and body in harmony with one another (from early Ionic Athenians)
What was the difference between athens and sprta during ancient greece?
ATHENS
* Culture, architecture, home to philosophers, artists, etc.
* Education through the physical
* By participating in physical education, Athenians developed other virtues
* Education was the responsibility of the family
* Out of shape body = poor education
* Athenian gymnasiums, lavish
SPARTA
* Military power
* Physical training (education of the physical)
* Training was purely for military purposes
* Education was responsibility of the state, focused on
discipline, obedience
* Only the fittest babies were allowed to live, children
began training at 7 years old
* Functional facilities
What were some ideas of how sport originated in ancient greece?
- Evolved from competitions of other eras (Myceanean era, Crete, Phoenicians)
- Mythical origins (Achilles, Odysseus)
- Cult of honouring the dead – “Funeral Games” and linked to religion
- Cult of honouring fertility (Demeter, goddess of fertility)
- Organized as military training
- Inherent urge for competition
What were the four crown games of ancient greece?
What was the circuit of the four crown games called?
What was the schedule of the four games?
If you won all four games, what were you called?
- Olympic Games
- Pythian Games
- Isthmian Games
- Nemean Games
the periodos
Athletes competed in all four over the
four-year cycle
- If you won your event at all competitions, you were the periodonike
When did the olympic games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
First held in 776 BC
* Held every four years to honour Zeus
* Held at Olympia
* Winner awarded a garland of olive branch
When did the pythian games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
- Second most important Crown Games
(following the Olympics) - Held in the temple of Apollo near Delphi, every four years, late summer
- Started in 582 BC
- Dedicated to Apollo, the God of Fine
Arts - Initially a music festival, then added sport
- Women were allowed to participate in
later years - Winner was crowned a garland of laurel
When did the Isthmian games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
Held every two years (right before and right after the Olympics) at a temple near Corinth
* Held in honour of Poseidon, God of the Sea
* Started in 581 BC
* Three age groups
* Women participated later on
* Artistic competitions were included
* Winner was crowned a garland of pines
When did the Nemean games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
- Held at a temple for Zeus in Nemea
- Started 8 years after the Isthmian Games
- Dorian culture (not panhellenic)
- Competition between nemean and isthmian games – held every two years in the
same year - Victor awarded a garland of wild celery
How were women involved in greek sport?
- Greek sport focused on men and boys
competing - In Sparta, women did train for the
purposes of bearing healthy children
(Athenians did not approve!) - Women could “participate” in chariot
races if they were rich enough - Heraian Games
- Honoured Goddess Hera, included
footraces and some dancing - Used the stadia in Olympia but races
were shorter - Organized by 16 women, held after
the Olympics
Who were 4 of the GOATS of the ancient greek games?
- Theagenes of Thasos, boxer (won 1,000 + bouts)
- Milo of Croton, wrestler (6 Olympic titles, 26 titles at other Crown Games)
- Leonidas of Rhodes, runner (multiple Olympic wreaths in different categories)
- Gaius Appuleius Diocles, chariot racing (won 1,000+ times and a lot of money!)
What is the definition of hoplitodromos?
race in full armour
What was another name for the olympic games?
Who were they held in honour of?
Where did they take place?
When did they start?
- First and foremost a sacred event –
the “sacred” games - Held in honour of Zeus
- Occurred in Olympia (sanctuary of
Olympia), within the city-state of Elis - Origin is attributed to 776 BC
- Recorded evidence beginning at
that time - Lack of alternative date
What is the definition of ekecheiria
- Sacred treaty or pact ensuring safe passage
- NOT an Olympic truce
Who fought over the temple of olympia?
Elis and Pisa constantly fought over it
Pisa controlled the Games in 748, 644, and 364 BC
What is the definition of hellanodikai?
what did they do?
The games were organized and refereed by local officials called hellanodikai
- Only one until 584 BC, then eventually grew to 12
What time of year were the olympic games held?
- Held during full moon following summer solstice, (second half of July or August)
- Means of counting the years
What was the first ever event of the olympic games?
How many spectators attended the games?
- The Games started with one day and one event (the stadion race) and ultimately grew over time to 5 days. No new events added after 200 BC
- 40,000 spectators from all over Greece and overseas colonies
What did the 5 day schedule of the ancient olympics look like?
- Five-day schedule started at the beginning of the 5th Century BC
- Day 1: Opening ceremonies, boys’ competitions, contests for heralds and
trumpeters - Day 2: The interesting stuff – four-horse chariot race, horse racing, pentathlon
- Day 3: Religious ceremonies, sacrifices, and feast
- Day 4: More interesting stuff – foot races, boxing, wrestling, pankration
- Day 5: Closing ceremonies
What is the definition of a stadion race?
What were the games named after?
- Stadion race (1 length of the stadion, or stadium)
- 600 feet, roughly = 180 meters
- The Games were named after the winner
- Only event included in all Ancient Olympic Games
What were 3 different types of races besides the stadion in the ancient olympics?
- Additional foot races:
- 724 BC: The diaulos (2 lengths of the stade)
- 720 BC: The dolichos (8-24 lengths of the stade)
- Longest race in Greek agonistics
- Varied in length, but typically 20-24 lengths (about 3 miles or 4.8km)
- 520 BC: Hoplitodromos (footrace in armor, same distance as diaulos)
- Coincided with timeframe when city-states needed big armies
What is the definition of a husplex?
a sort of starting gate for the runners
* Runners were punished (flogged) for false start
