Apartheid

Question 1

Outline the political issues in South Africa in 1960.

Answer 1

National Party (Dutch Afrikaners) implement system of apartheid in 1948
- legitimising racial segregation despite being the minority
- Africans no longer have the right to vote, possess land, perceived as inferior
Anti-apartheid groups (e.g. ANC, PAC) emerge - little to no political voice or power

Question 2

Outline the economic issues in South Africa in 1960.

Answer 2

Deep economic inequality - black population’s average income was less than 10% of the white population

Africans confined to reserves –> Afrikaners required cheap labour for low-tier, more dangerous jobs (e.g. mining) –> creation of pass laws (severely restricted movement) + Afrikaners exploited Africans labour to maximise their profits –> poor conditions

Question 3

Outline the social and demographic issues in South Africa in 1960.

Answer 3

Population breakdown: Africans 68.3%, Whites 19.3%, Coloured 9.4%

Pass laws - severely restricted movement, all aspects of life controlled
Townships (settlements for Black Africans on the edge of urban areas to live as they worked) - unsanitary and overcrowded
Discrimination - from 1948 they couldn’t vote, were dispossessed of land, viewed as inferior, kept racially segregated from whites

Question 4

Outline the ideology of apartheid.

Answer 4

No clear blueprint for Apartheid ideology, based on white superiority over other races, elimination of miscegenation, belief as a fair and just system and traditional principles of guardianship

White superiority underpinned all of apartheid ideology - believed they had a right to govern and control other races

Biblical justification: believed god had created different races with the intention of keeping them apart

Miscegenation, or mixing races: believed that if races were mixed, the white race would be destroyed –> separation through apartheid was necessary

Fair and just system as they believed they were tasked with guardianship over the other races - apartheid was a way of treating the races fairly, responsibility to guard and protect through separation

Sought Afrikaner domination as they pursued the formation of a republic and severing of ties with Britain

Question 5

Outline the main features/policy of apartheid - implementing Apartheid and strengthening the National Party.

Answer 5

Define: apartheid referred to the policy of separating races in all aspects of life.
Introduced in 1948 by the National Party (comprised of Dutch Afrikaners)

TWO MAIN AIMS: enforce and protect white superiority through an all-encompassing system of separation AND sever political ties with Britain

• Suppression of Communism Act 1950: SA Communist Party banned –> arrest of political individuals hostile to the apartheid regime
• Created six more seats in Namibia where residents were expected to vote for nationalists —> doubled no. of seats the party was entitled to –> ensure majority in parliament
• Separate Representation of Voters Act 1951 - abolished coloured peoples right to vote (Africans never had the right)

Question 6

What are the four categories of impacts on urban and rural communities?

Answer 6

1. Daily life and freedoms
2. Housing/living areas
3. Education
4. Economic

Question 7

How did apartheid affect urban and rural communities in regards to daily life and freedoms?

Answer 7

Micro-level inconveniences under petty apartheid
- Reservation of Separate Amenities Act 1953 - separate facilities and public services
Required to carry a passbook under the Pass Laws Act 1952 (criminal offence not to carry it)
- Allowed the gov to monitor and control their daily movements and activities

Those caught breaking the law could be imprisoned, whipped and/or fined (whites punished much less harshly)

Question 8

Outline the policy/features of apartheid - grand apartheid.

Answer 8

Grand apartheid: overall system of keeping races separate

• Group Areas Act 1950: living in separate areas, subject to forced removal
• Immorality Amendment Act 1950: sex between people of different races made illegal
• Population Registration Act 1950: people were classified as white, asian, coloured or black african

Question 9

Outline the policy/features of apartheid - petty apartheid.

Answer 9

Petty apartheid: day to day restrictions such as different public amenities and transport waiting rooms

• Reservation of Separate Amenities Act 1953 - public spaces and services separated
• many found this more wearying

Question 10

How would you structure a response on the features/policy of apartheid?

Answer 10

Define
Implemented in 1948 by the national party
2 Aims
Strengthening the National Party
Grand Apartheid
Petty Apartheid

Question 11

How did apartheid affect urban and rural communities in regards to housing and living areas?

Answer 11

Group Areas Act 1950: allowed the government to forcibly move citizens to designated living areas
- Led to the forcible eviction and relocation of more than 3.5 million Africans between 1951-86

Sophiatown: one of the only urban areas where Africans were allowed to own property

• More than 70% of buildings considered slums
• overcrowded and unsanitary

Question 12

How did apartheid affect urban and rural communities in regards to education?

Answer 12

Syllabus focused on enforcing white superiority over the inferior Black and coloured races

Bantu Education Act 1953: mission schools (run by churches for blacks) had to be handed over to the government or receive decreased subsidies
- Many forced to close due to lack of funding

Many parents did not send their children to school as they didn’t want them being taught of white superiority –> low education and literacy rates –> few economic opportunities

Question 13

How did apartheid affect urban and rural communities in regards to economic opportunities?

Answer 13

Limited to unskilled jobs often with dangerous working conditions e.g. mining

Bantu Authorities Act 1951: emphasised that Africans had no place in South Africa and were only used as a source of cheap labour

• Required permission from the government to look for work

Question 14

How did apartheid affect specifically urban communities?

Answer 14

More crowded and unsanitary, as Africans were forced to live in squalid slums such as Sophiatown

Question 15

What does the verb “account” mean?

Answer 15

State reasons for

Question 16

Outline the nature of the ANC. (4 points)

Answer 16

ANC was made up of more educated members (middle-class) and racially diverse (coloured, Indians, Africans, whites)

• Integrationist approach
• All races had an equal role to play in a post-apartheid society

Supported the Freedom Charter - worked together with SAIC (SA Indian Congress) and CPSA
- Equal rights for all people

Peaceful resistance: policy of civil disobedience

• Resist apartheid through non-cooperation
• 1946 miner’s strike: 100,000 on strike despite brutal repression

Youth League: sought a broader organisation with mass support

• Direct action rather than passive protest and discussion
• Emphasised the community-based culture of Africans

Question 17

What are the origins of the PAC?

Answer 17

Breakaway group from the ANC

- Founded by Robert Sobukwe who called on ANC to look after African interests first but was forced out of the ANC

Question 18

What are the similarities between the ANC and PAC?

Answer 18

Both sought to overturn apartheid
Both primarily made up of black South Africans
Both turned to violent means through offshoot groups such as the MK and Poqo

Question 19

Outline the nature of the PAC. (5 points)

Answer 19

Rejected Freedom Charter
- Rejected equality of all groups, advocated for Pan-Africanism → perceived white people as the enemy and aimed for their total expulsion from South Africa

PAC refused to work with other non-African groups, as they saw the fight for liberation as exclusively a black African cause - worked insularly without collaboration
 - Made up entirely of Africans, generally more impoverished, lower-class members 

Pursued same anti-colonialism movements as those throughout Africa in the liberation of SA

More inclined to use violence
- Strikes and demonstrations in which public anger could be vented - led to tragedies such as the Sharpeville Massacre

Events were often more disorganised and devolved into chaos

Question 20

Describe the MK. (4 points)

Answer 20

Mandela co-founded the military branch of the ANC

Conduct acts of sabotage on government installations whilst avoiding loss of life

Emphasis placed on MK being independent of the ANC although affiliated (ANC still anti-violence)

Later adopted more violent forms of resistance → Train volunteers for guerilla warfare

Question 21

Describe Poqo.

Answer 21

Military arm of PAC - most violent faction, willing to use terror and intimidation
Targeted white people, African policemen and local chiefs

• E.g. assault on the white settlement of Paarl in 1962 Hacked two young white people to death

Question 22

What was the impact of the PAC?

Answer 22

Short term, big devastation, led to a lot of tightened restrictions from the National Party

Question 23

What was the impact of the ANC?

Answer 23

Long term, political structural change → dismantling of apartheid

Question 24

Outline 4 examples of resistance up until 1960.

Answer 24

ANC, PAC, MK, Poqo

Question 25

Outline three other examples of resistance up until 1960.

Answer 25

African Resistance Movement (ARM): off-shoot of the white liberal party - increasingly liberal Soweto Uprising Black Conciousness Movement

Question 26

How did the ANC contribute to the growth of the anti-Apartheid movement? (linked to nature, growth and impact)

Answer 26

Fostered anti-apartheid sentiment, gave opposers a means of resisting, its integrationist nature meant anyone could participate

Question 27

How would you structure a response to the question - How significant was the Sharpeville Massacre in catalysing national resistance to apartheid (8 marks)?

Answer 27

1. What was it 2. Initial oppression 3. Shift to violent resistance 4. Increased government repression 5. International response

Question 28

How significant was the Sharpeville Massacre in catalysing national resistance to apartheid - Opening.

Answer 28

Turning point during apartheid, highlighting the futility of peaceful resistance and the brutality of the white government. 21 March 1960 - Killing 69 blacks and wounding more than 180 people --> revealed the cruel and brutal nature of the government

Question 29

How significant was the Sharpeville Massacre in catalysing national resistance to apartheid - Initial repression.

Answer 29

State of emergency announced one week later --> police arrested over 100,000 people including Nelson Mandela - ANC and PAC declared unlawful under the Unlawful Organisations Act 1960 - Removed the principle of legitimate voices in Africa as protesting became illegal - Severely restricting the rights of African people, outlawing their main forms of resistance and exposing the corrupt and brutal nature of the government

Question 30

When was Sharpeville Massacre?

Answer 30

21st March 1960

Question 31

How significant was the Sharpeville Massacre in catalysing national resistance to apartheid - Shift to violence.

Answer 31

Marked the ANC's and PAC's shift towards more violent resistance - deaths of peaceful protestors highlighted the ineffectiveness of passive resistance - MK and Poqo, the military wings of the ANC and PAC, as well as the Liberal Party began campaigns of bombing and violence, particularly against institutions that enforced apartheid

Question 32

How significant was the Sharpeville Massacre in catalysing national resistance to apartheid - Increased repression.

Answer 32

Also led to increased government control - Sabotage Act 1962: introduced the death penalty for all acts of sabotage and allowed security forces to use torture to extract confessions - General Laws Amendment Act 1963: allowed authorities to arrest anyone for 90 days without charge, and detention could be extended indefinitely

Question 33

How significant was the Sharpeville Massacre in catalysing national resistance to apartheid - International response.

Answer 33

Enraged international stage - Prospect of isolation as several countries severed ties with SA - Brain drain: higher rates of emigration than immigration - UN Security Council: passed a resolution condemning the SA government and depending them to end apartheid

Question 34

What are your bare minimum facts for impacts of the Sharpeville Massacre?

Answer 34

Killing 69 blacks and wounding more than 180 After one week a state of emergency was announced --> arrest of over 10,000 individuals including Nelson Mandela Unlawful Organisations Act 1960 Sabotage Act 1962 General Laws Amendment Act 1963

Question 35

Describe Nelson Mandela’s role as head of Umkhonto we Sizwe, ‘The Spear of the Nation’ (MK). (overlaps with "describe the MK")

Answer 35

Founded by Mandela in 1961 with Joe Slovo - Conduct acts of sabotage on government buildings whilst avoiding the loss of life - Emphasis placed on being independent to the ANC, though still affiliated (ANC anti-violence) - Within the first 18 months, staged over 200 attacks - Later turned to more violent means, such as training soldiers for guerilla warfare

Question 36

What was the Rivonia Trial?

Answer 36

July 1963: many of MK's leaders were arrested at a farmhouse in Rivonia and charged for sabotage and conspiring to facilitate "violent revolution" - 8 of the 17 leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment and many remained imprisoned until the end of the 1980s

Question 37

Outline the impact of the Rivonia Trial on the ANC and PAC.

Answer 37

Significant weakening of liberation movement - operations halted as the majority of underground leaders were arrested and the trial entrenched the government's control - 8 out of the 17 leaders were sentenced to life in prison and many were held in prison until the end of the 1980s - ANC moved their headquarters to Tanzania - challenge to build a presence in SA - SA was surrounded by Mozambique, Rhodesia and Angola who had white governments hostile to the cause - MK soldiers were tracked and killed when trying to move through hostile countries - Dissolution of ANC meant living and hiding in the populace was impossible - Security forces were relentless and brutal in prosecuting individuals accused of aiding the banned organisations

Question 38

Why was the ANC more resilient than the PAC after the Rivonia Trial?

Answer 38

Military training and funding from the USSR Anti-apartheid support from the US and Europe Military bases in Tanzania and other African countries Much of this was due to Oliver Tambo, the ANC deputy president based in London who was skilled in diplomacy and was able to gather support in Europe

Question 39

What effect did the Rivonia trial have on international responses to Apartheid?

Answer 39

Extensive media coverage overseas and world opinion likely dissuaded the judge from issuing the death penalty in fear of growing international anti-apartheid resistance UN called for defendants to be released and global leaders such as Brezhnev, British MPs and US Congressmen called for clemency International protests against apartheid Sanctions placed on SA

Question 40

Outline the impact of Mandela during the Rivonia Trial and the "Free Mandela" campaign.

Answer 40

No death penalty --> imprisonment on Robben Island --> Mandela became the face of the anti-apartheid struggle FREE MANDELA MOVEMENT - International involvement had saved Mandela and other leading figures of the MK from the death penalty in the 1964 Rivonia Trial - International involvement similarly helped ensure Mandela's safe release from prison - Free Mandela Movement started by Tambo in 1980 - Many believed the release of Mandela would begin negotiations towards ending apartheid and the beginning of a non-racial democratic constitution that would replace the white-minority rule

Question 41

How effective was Nelson Mandela as the leader of the ANC?

Answer 41

1. Part of ANC youth league and leader of MK (co-leader Joe Slavo 2. Work as a figurehead - Rivonia Trial and Free Mandela Movement 3. Role in the transition to democracy - Chris Hani assassination

Question 42

What are some things Nelson Mandela did prior to his arrest?

Answer 42

Joined ANC Youth League in 1944 Late 1940s: helped launch the Defiance Campaign 1955: involved in drafting the Freedom Charter

Question 43

When did Black Conciousness arise and what were its aims?

Answer 43

Major force that arose in the late 1960s Steve Biko: leader of the SASO (South African Students Organisation) formed in 1969 coined the term "black consciousness" AIM: liberate black minds from the "psychological shackles of white domination" - Reverse the 'brainwashing' and indoctrination that Blacks were inferior - Foster pride for their identity

Question 44

Explain the significance of the Black Conciousness movement.

Answer 44

Led to the remobilization of Black Africans after the bleak events of the 1960s - Sharpeville Massacre, Mandela's arrest While the government was initially tolerant as they believed it would support their emphasis on self-government, they quickly began to recognise its power and influence as it gave Africans pride and consciousness in their identity and heritage Helped African students realise the purpose of education was not to equip them with skills and knowledge but rather keep them in servitude (+ decreasing funding for African schools) Increased pride and connection to culture Rise in African popular culture

Question 45

What are your 4 sections for a question "Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression."

Answer 45

Intro: Botha's total strategy (comes to power in 1978) Security forces Removal of rights and freedoms - bantustans and repression of the press Culminating in necklacing and state of emergency

Question 46

Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression - intro.

Answer 46

Botha, security forces, restriction of rights, state of emergency Botha's Total Strategy (came to power in 1978) - intensified oppression - more outward looking, more overt Recognised that Vorster's system of apartheid was unsustainable, and so implemented reforms to "appease" the population e.g. creation of a black middle class in the hopes that richer blacks would have a larger stake in the system and not support further calls for change Failure led to future repression

Question 47

Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression - security forces: defence force.

Answer 47

1979-83: Botha introduces forced conscription - size doubles 1979-83: 30-40 assassinations on prominent anti-apartheid activists and oppositional leaders Policed citizens, carried out state-sanctioned violence, carried out raids, instantly shot prisoners 1984: SA and Mozambique signed the Nkomati Accords --> FRELIMO would close ANC bases in their country in return for SA ceasing to support opposition groups there Granted SADF respite from full-scale military activity, closed ANC bases in a frontline state which could have been used to launch attacks

Question 48

Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression - security forces: Kitkonstables.

Answer 48

Security forces enlisted a wide number of black African men who were generally unemployed, illiterate and held criminal convitions to destroy community orgnaisations established by the ANC and UDF Ill-trained and poorly supervised --> arson, robbery, murder and rape Government used these groups to highlight black-on-black violence and use this as a compelling argument against balck self-government and political agency

Question 49

Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression - security forces: Civilian Cooperation Bureau

Answer 49

Covert organisation tasked with eliminating all enemies of the state Murdered many critics such as David Webbster (lecturer and vocal critic of apartheid, killed in the US)

Question 50

Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression - removal of rights and freedoms: bantustans

Answer 50

By 1980, 53% of Black South Africans liven in Bantustans Black Homelands Citizenship Act 1970: declared "alien" within South Africa, meaning they could not access passports or healthcare, not considered citizens Poor conditions, economically dependent on gov. Brutal leaders chosen by SA gov

Question 51

Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression - removal of rights and freedoms: repression of the press

Answer 51

Protection of Information Act 1982: press prohibited from reporting on arrests, information on deaths in detention could not be reported Police Amendment Act: allegations of police brutality were outlawed

Question 52

Describe the nature of tactics of repression and oppression - CULMINATING IN:

Answer 52

After police fired on a funeral procession in the Eastern Cape, locals responded with a new form of protest called "necklacing" (rubber tire placed around neck and lit up) - in 1985 over 60 necklacing incidents Declaration of a state of emergency Recognition of SA's bankruptcy and how the white minority would be overpowered by others

Question 53

Outline the impact of tactics of repression and oppression - 4 paragraphs.

Answer 53

Radicalised oppression Township violence and protests Continued resistance from the ANC and PAC Formation of UDF Trade unions

Question 54

Outline the impact of tactics of repression and oppression - township violence.

Answer 54

Protests due exponentially, far exceeding Soweto (1976) and any other anti-apartheid campaigns Incidents of unrest rose from 4000 in 1987 to 17000 in 1990 Protestors attacked symbols of apartheid - police stations, government buildings, homes of black policemen Necklacing - 1985: over 60 necklacing incidents (after police fired on a funeral procession in the Eastern Cape)

Question 55

Outline the impact of tactics of repression and oppression - continued resistance from ANC and PAC

Answer 55

TUrned from guerilla warfare to focus on urban areas - goal was to create the "people's war" Increased acts of sabotage Bombings e.g. South African Coal, Oil and Gas Plant in 1980 and Koeberg nuclear power station (1982) 1983: 42 attacks by ANC on government installations 1985: "make apartheid unworkable! make south Africa ungovernable!"

Question 56

Outline the impact of tactics of repression and oppression - formation of UDF

Answer 56

formed in 1983 No identified leadership - could not be broken easily created to denounce apartheid and call for coloured and indians to boycott the electoral process less than a third of eligible voters cast a ballot Programme of "people's organs for people's power" --> people's courts, youth groups, organise strikes

Question 57

How significant were tactics of repression and oppression in the implementation of apartheid?

Answer 57

Highly significant Link in "descibe the nature" and "the impact"

Question 58

How effective were tactics of repression and oppression in the preservation of apartheid?

Answer 58

Ineffective - radicalised resistance and garnered more anti-apartheid support Repression had its limits - the security forces could not control the resistance of the masses

Question 59

What were bantustans?

Answer 59

Rural areas where Africans were designated to live, away from urban areas Group Areas Act 1950 - led to the forcible relocation of 3.5 million Africans from 1951-86

Question 60

How independent of the SA gov were bantustans?

Answer 60

NOT INDEPENDENT: used as a means of repression rather than granting independence They were granted "full independence" but this was merely a guise - did not have democractic governemnts - could not introduce their own laws and foriegn polices were ocntrolled by SA govnerment - none of these states received international recognition - SA gov had the power to appoint local chiefs --> installed leaders whowould cooperate with the governemnt and control opposition Economically dependant: land was not arable --> could not sustain themselves Budget relied heavily on assistance and subsidies from the government Had to travel to townships, mines and other urban areas to satisfy the need for cheap labout

Question 61

How did the Bantustans function as a means of repression and control? (lots of overlap with how independent were the bantustans)

Answer 61

Enabled blacks to lose all political rights in SA as they were no longer deemed citizens so couldn’t vote or run for office Black Homelands Citizenship Act 1970: deemed aliens - could not access healthcare, passports, services or rights

Question 62

What were the goals of SA with neighbouring countries?

Answer 62

Support white minority govenremnts, fight communism (assist non-communist groups), stop black-majority governemnts from suporting the ANC and PAC

Question 63

Angola

Answer 63

GOAL: quash communism Operation Savannah 1975: partially invaded Angola Fought with American against Angola to drive out communist forces $14 million in arms

Question 64

Namibia

Answer 64

GOAL: ensure continued control SA WANTED: a buffer against the encroachement of communism in Angola, hold onto white votes to bolster election outcomes NAMIBIA WANTED: independence from SA's repression and control CONFLICT: quash independence movement

Question 65

Mozambique

Answer 65

GOAL: stop support for ANC and PAC In 1984, the SA and Mazambique signed the Nkomati Accords Marxist govenrment would close down ANC bases in Mozambique and SA gov would stop supporting anti-communist forces there

Question 66

Rhodesia/Zimbabwe

Answer 66

Supplied aid to forces fighting against independence groups Failed - gained independence in 1980

Question 67

International responses to SA - extent

Answer 67

moderate extent: did place pressure and make the gov realise they were being watched, remained largely unbothered and willing to be isolated nations such as the us and UK continued to source commodities form the SA

Question 68

Impact of neighbouring companies on end of apartheid

Answer 68

moderate - SA became more isolated, could not suppress both domestic and international forces Bordered with very hostile-black led nations, some communist e.g. Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe/Rhodesia

Question 69

International boycotts - non-economic

Answer 69

Sports boycotts in Aus and NZ of all-white SA teams --> HART (Halt ALl Racist Tours) in 1969

Question 70

International boycotts - economic

Answer 70

British Anti-Apartheid Movement (1959) called for an economic boycott of all SA goods - foreign bankers and investors began to pull out of the country 1985: Chase Manhattan Bank caused a major financial crisis by refusing to roll over short term bank loans. followed by most other iternational banks.

Question 71

International boycotts - sanctions

Answer 71

After Shaprveille: UN posed sanctions and requested all states suspend exchanges with the "racist regime" 1977 UN embargo on the sale of arms 1986 Comphrensive Anti-Apartheid Act: - US implemented mandatory sanctions against SA --> banning all new investments, bankloans, SA imports, end of air links between SA and US - 50% fall in US investment in SA

Question 72

International anti-apartheid movements

Answer 72

American Committee on Africa (1953): support for liberation movements British Defence and Aid Fund (1956) --> fund for legal aid for those accused in the Treason Trial Sweden began giving direct aid to liberation movements including ANC in 1969

Question 73

Political, social and economic factors in the end of apartheid - judgement

Answer 73

Social and economic factors were the most significant as they were the integral underlying factors, as they enabled in the long-term the also highly significant catalytic political factors to occur, thus contributing to the end of apartheid and transition to democracy

Question 74

Economic factors in the end of apartheid

Answer 74

Workers strikes - pressure on economy and business White-run businesses (businesses being ruined by sanctions and embargoes --> work to negotiate with the ANC) Cost of apartheid --> bantustans completely dependent on government subsidies, armed forces International trade embargoes and loss of foreign investment - 1985 Chase Manhattan Bank caused a major financial crisis when they refused to roll over short-term bank loans UN sanctions 1986 Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act: US imposed mandatory sanctions, 50% decrease in SA investment, banning of many SA imports

Question 75

Social factors in the end of apartheid

Answer 75

Civil unrest and heightened dissatisfaction - gov failed to make meaningful change (poor living conditions, access to education) Violence Fear of civil war Changing demographics: - White population dropped from 21% in 1936 to 15% in 1988 - More black Africans moving into townships and urban areas (African population in townships doubled from 5.2 to 10.6 million between 1951 and 1980)

Question 76

Political factors in the end of apartheid - rise of radical groups and violence

Answer 76

Rise of radical groups IFP and AWB and their Freedom Alliance Increased violence --> encouraged Mandela and De Klerk to reach negotiations Assassination of Chris Hani (SACP leader) in 1993 by a member of the AWB --> violence increased killing 72 more people 49 people killed in Boipatong by IFP members

Question 77

Political factors in the end of apartheid - De Klerk coming to power

Answer 77

Changed attitude towards the NAC: had been holding secret meetings since 1986, made public --> dispelling the notion that the ANC was unreasonable and incapable of negotiation Mandela was released and in 1989 both agreed to work together to negotiate a peaceful and lasting settlement Abolished press censorship and the death penalty, allowing the government to talk openly with opposition groups and hold democratic elections Release of political prisoners and those in exile could return

Question 78

Political factors in the end of apartheid - rising visibility of the ANC and declining popularity for NP

Answer 78

Release of Mandela - high profile event that sparked hope for a peaceful transition from apartheid Mandela's response to the assassination of Chris Hani vs De Klerk's decision to deploy police against protestors --> Mandela as stronger more compassionate leader

Question 79

Problems facing the National Party and the ANC in the transition to democracy in South Africa - overview

Answer 79

Violence Tensions between Mandela and De Klerk Logisitical issues

Question 80

First problem facing the National Party and the ANC in the transition to democracy in South Africa

Answer 80

VIOLENCE Lead-up to transition to democracy --> rise of violence and dissent AWB and IFP - extremist groups --> Freedom Alliance Assassination of Chris Hani (SACP leader) in 1993 by AWB member --> 72 more people dying as a result of AWB and IFP attacks Biopatong - 49 people killed by 200 IFP members --> Mandela accused governments of complicity in the attack and withdrawing ANC from negotiations 27 people killed at Sebokeng (IFP members murdered ANC demonstrators) --> Mandela accused De Klerk of deliberately allowing the killings to occur, alleging the police had been warned of the attacks but did nothing

Question 81

Second problem facing the National Party and the ANC in the transition to democracy in South Africa

Answer 81

Tensions between Mandela and De Klerk - breakdowns in multiparty negotiations CODESA: set up to start a dialogue about a new constitution with the 19 governments representing the major parties agreeing to establish an interim government IFP refused to sign a new constitution as they wished to preserve the autonomy of the bantustans De Klerk and Mandela constantly criticised one another in the media 1990 government discovered Operation Vula: seemed to show the ANC preparing for revolution --> led to NP accusing the ANC of not being committed to a peaceful agreement 1992: after violence in Biopatung, ANC called a two-day strike, with Mandela leading 50,000 supporters to government buildings to call for action

Question 82

Third problem facing the National Party and the ANC in the transition to democracy in South Africa

Answer 82

Logistical issues during SA's first democratic election in 1994 Dubbed a "technical shamble", SA had no voter roles or infrastructure for election --> huge queues + fears many would not get to vote IFP leader petitioning for the South Sfrican Electoral Commission (IEC) to extend voting amidst widespread accusations of sabotage and an unfair process by both the IFP and ANC IFP's last minute decision to take part in the election --> printing of 18 million stickers a week before polling, printed overseas in the UK and then flown to SA Highly messy and some stickers failed to reach voting stations

Question 83

Solutions overview

Answer 83

Mandela's strong leadership, succesful negotaitons and effective organisation by the SOuth African Electoral Commission (IEC)

Question 84

Solution to the violence

Answer 84

Mandela's leadership Chris Hani's speech: passionatley told the audience that the "killing must stop" and condemned De Klerk for not stanfing against the AWB Rallied the people together Highlighted the need for Apartheid to end

Question 85

Solution to the tension

Answer 85

Skilful negotiators Cyril Ramaphosa and Roelf Meyer Maintained a dialogue despite tensions September 1992: "Record of understanding" - signed to acknowledge commitment to reaching a deal to end the violence 1992 Sunset Clause suggested by Joe Slovo - five year democratically elected coalition government with concessions and guarantees to all sides - ensured job security for civil servants who served under the apartheid regime - enabled any party with over 5% of the vote to appoint a member of government Multiparty negotiations resumed in 1993, with an agreement reached over a new constitution

Question 86

Solution to logistical problems

Answer 86

Law Amendment allowing IFP to be written on ballot papers IEC consisted of extremely dedicated volunteers Managed the elections of national, provincial and municipal legislative bodies allowing for information analysis departments to make sense of reports from election monitors --> aware of any threats to the election