APES 150 Flashcards
(150 cards)
1
Q
First Law of Thermodynamics
A
energy is neither created nor destroyed, may be converted from one form to another
2
Q
Second Law of Thermodynamics
A
when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is degraded into lower-quality energy (usually heat) Entropy is increased
3
Q
High-quality energy
A
organized and concentrated, able to perform useful work (ex: oil and nuclear)
4
Q
Low-quality energy
A
disorganized dispersed (ex: heat)
5
Q
Units of energy
A
joules, calories, kilocalories, BTU’s, kilowatt-hours
6
Q
Power
A
the rate of doing work. Units of power: watts and kilowatts
7
Q
Electromagnetic radiation
A
a form of energy, travel as waves-radio waves, IR, visible light, UV, gamma ray
8
Q
Ionizing radiation
A
has enough energy to knock electrons from atoms, forming ions, and capable of doing damage to DNA. (Gamma rays, X-rays, UV)
9
Q
Radioactive decay
A
unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha and beta particles
10
Q
Half-life
A
the time it takes for ½ of the mass of a radioisotope to decay
11
Q
Estimate of how long a radioisotope must be stored until it has decayed to a safe level
A
10 half-lives
12
Q
Nuclear fission
A
nuclei of isotopes are split apart into smaller nuclei; used in nuclear reactors
13
Q
Nuclear fusion
A
2 isotopes of light elements are forced together at high temperatures; not technologically available now
14
Q
Parts of hydrologic (water) cycle
A
evaporation (transpiration), condensation, precipitation
15
Q
The fate of precipitation
A
runoff or infiltration, percolation
16
Q
Aquifer
A
underground water-bearing layer Water table- the upper surface of groundwater
17
Q
Cone of depression
A
lowering of the water table around a pumping well
18
Q
Saltwater intrusion
A
over-pumping of groundwater near the coast causes saltwater to move into an aquifer
19
Q
Ways to conserve water
A
Agriculture- drip irrigation
industry- recycling,
home use- fix leaks, use gray water, low flow fixtures
20
Q
Distribution of water on Earth
A
97% seawater, 2% in icecaps and glaciers, <1% in groundwater, surface, organism, and atmosphere
21
Q
Carbon
A
component of all organic molecules
22
Q
The largest reservoir of carbon
A
sedimentary rocks, second the ocean
23
Q
Photosynthesis
A
the process by which plants convert CO2 to carbohydrates, removes C from the atmosphere
24
Q
Cellular respiration
A
organisms break down carbohydrates; releases energy, returns C to the atmosphere
25
Processes that releases C back into the atmosphere
cellular respiration and decomposition, fires, burning fossil fuels, volcanoes
26
Carbon-silicate cycle
very slow, geological cycle, C in oceans used by marine organisms, end up in ocean sediments and are subducted into Earth’s crust, eventually returned through volcanic venting
27
Nitrogen
component of proteins and amino acids
28
The largest reservoir of nitrogen
the atmosphere (78% N2)
29
Nitrogen fixation
N2 is converted to ammonia NH3. bacteria does this
30
Nitrification
ammonia is converted to nitrite (NO2) to nitrate (NO3)
31
Assimilation
plants incorporate ammonia and nitrate ions into organic molecules (nucleic acids, amino acids)
32
Ammonification
decomposer bacteria break down organic compounds into ammonia
33
Denitrification
specialized bacteria convert nitrogen compounds into N2 (nitrogen) and N2O (nitrous oxide) which are released into the atmosphere
34
Phosphorous
component of nucleic acids and a limiting factor for plant growth
35
P cycles more slowly
no gaseous phase, mostly found in rocks as PO4 (phosphate), released by weathering
36
Too much P in aquatic ecosystems
P from animal waste, fertilizers, sewage can cause eutrophication (excessive nutrients in body of water that causes dense growth of plants and death of animals due to lack of oxygen)
37
Major macronutrients
CHNOPS: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur
38
Micronutrients and trace elements
needed in small amounts
39
Earth is 4.5 billion years old
1st cells appeared 3.5 billion years ago
40
Plate tectonics
Earth’s crust is broken into plates that move relative to each other, movement caused by convection currents dissipating Earth’s internal heat
41
plate boundaries
Volcanoes and earthquakes occur at
42
Divergent plate boundaries
seafloor spreading, new crust generated, mid-ocean ridges
43
Convergent and continental plate boundaries
oceanic plate subducts under oceanic or continental plates, causes volcanoes and trenches. Continental plates produce mountains
44
Transform boundaries
plates slide past each other, causes earthquakes
45
Rock cycle
relationship of rocks and rock formation processes
46
Rock types according to origin
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
47
Minerals
are not renewable
48
Ore
concentration of mineral is high enough so that it is profitable to mine
49
Mineral reserve
mineral resource, profitable to mine
50
Surface mining
strip mining (stopping a layer of soil), cheaper, less dangerous to miners. Problems: toxic runoff, acid drainage
51
Soil texture
the size of soil particles; sand, silt, clay
52
Humus
organic material in the soil
53
Leaching
removal of dissolved materials by water moving through
54
Permeability and Porosity
ability to transmit water. Porosity: ability to hold water
55
The solution to soil problems
contour plowing, crop rotation, conservation tillage, organic fertilizers
56
Troposphere
0-17 km above Earth’s surface, site of weather, organisms, most water vapor
57
Stratosphere
17-48 km above the surface, contains the ozone layer
58
Composition of Earth’s atmosphere
78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% argon, 0.0035% CO2
59
The original atmosphere was H2 and He, Organisms have altered atmosphere
increases O2 and N2 decreased
60
Weather
daily atmospheric conditions (temp and precip), Climate long term atmospheric conditions
61
Global circulation patterns
caused by uneven heating of Earth’s surface and Earth’s rotation
62
ENSO: El Niño Southern Oscillation
see-sawing of air pressure over Southern Pacific
63
El Niño
In the equatorial Pacific, trade winds weaken and warm water sloshed back to S America, suppresses upwelling of nutrient-rich water along the west coast of S Americ
64
Effects of El Niño
disrupts food chains, alters precipitation patterns, fewer Atlantic hurricanes
65
Greenhouse gases (GHG) water vapor, CO2, methane, CH4, CFCs
trap outgoing infrared radiation (heat), causing Earth to warm
66
Effects of global warming
rising sea level, droughts, disruptions of ecosystems, shifts in vegetation
67
Ozone depletion
caused by CFCs, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halons, methyl bromide all break down stratospheric ozone
68
Effects of ozone depletion
increased UV radiation reaches Earth’s surface; causes increased skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth, and marine productivity
69
Stratospheric ozone layer
approximately 20-30 km above the Earth’s surface (12-18 miles).
70
Biotic/abiotic
living and non-living
71
Producer/autotroph
organisms that CAN make their own food
72
Consumer/heterotroph
organisms that CANNOT make their own food
73
Aerobiotic respiration oxygen
used by producers, consumers, decomposers to break down complex organic compounds and release energy
74
Major trophic levels
producers-primary consumers-secondary consumers-tertiary consumers-etc
75
Energy flow in food webs
solar energy converted to chemical energy, eventually returned as heat
76
Energy flow in food webs percentage
only 10% transferred to next trophic leve
77
Why is only 10% transferred in trophic levels
energy lost to heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested, and predators use energy to catch prey
78
Mutualism
interaction between 2 species in which both species benefit
79
Parasitism
a relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
80
Commensalism
one partner benefits, the other is neither harmed nor benefited
81
Competition
organisms competing for the same resources
82
Biome
large region having similar climate and plant life, determined mostly by temperature and precipitation
83
Population
organism of the same species living in a particular area
84
Community
populations of all species living and interacting in an area
85
Primary succession
colonization and establishment of communities in an area not previously inhabited
86
Secondary succession
change in communities after disturbance; examples- logging, forest fires, hurricanes
87
Natural selection
organisms with favorable characteristics pass them on to the next generation
88
R strategist
reproduce early, mature rapidly, short-lived, many and unprotected offspring (salmon or mice)
89
K strategist
reproduce late, mature slowly, long-lived, fewer, and care for offspring (elephants)
90
Keystone species
species whose role in the ecosystem is more important than others
91
Indicator species
species that serve as an early warning that the ecosystem is being degraded
92
Traits of endangered species
specialists, small range, require large territory
93
Endemic species and exotic species
found only in one area. Exotic species: non-native species
94
Carrying capacity
number of individuals that can be sustained over time by the ecosystem
95
Size of human population
7.4 billion but 8 billion now
96
Doubling time
divide 70 by percent growth rate
97
Malthus
said human population can outgrow food supply, the result will be war, famine, and disease
98
Most populous countries
China, India, Us
99
Demographic transition
as countries become industrialized, death rates decline followed by declining birth rates
100
Preindustrial phase
birth and death rates high, low net population growth
101
Transitional phase
economic development better health care, death rates fall result is rapid population growth, occurring in LDC’s currently
102
Industrial phase
decline in birth rates, population growth slows
103
Age structure
proportion of the population in each age and sex category; broad base- rapid growth, narrow base- slow growth, uniform shape- zero growth
104
The most important factor affecting population growth
economic status of women
105
Ways to decrease birth rate
family planning, access to contraception, economic opportunities
106
Replacement fertility level
number of children needed to replace children for next generation (2.0 theoretically, 2.6 in LDC because of infant mortality)
107
Point source/nonpoint sources
discreet location like smokestack; non-point sources: dispersed, large area, e.g. cars
108
BOD
biochemical oxygen demand, amount of oxygen consumed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic compounds
109
Eutrophication
sequence of events caused by an excess of N and P stimulating algal bloom
110
Hypoxia
low oxygen in water. algae die, biochemical oxygen demand increases as decomposers break down algae, oxygen is depleted and water cannot support life
111
Primary air pollutants
emitted directly into the atmosphere (CO, SOx, NO, hydrocarbons)
112
Secondary pollutants
formed by the reaction of primary pollutants
113
Particulates
source-burning fossil fuels, diesel exhaust;
effects- respiratory irritation and damage,
reduction- electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers
114
Nitrogen oxides
source- burning fuel at high temperatures, effects- respiratory irritation, acidification of lakes, makes smog and ozone; reduction- catalytic converter in cars
115
Sulfur oxides
source – burning coal and oil; effects- respiratory irritation, produces acid deposition, reduces plant growth; reduction- use low sulfur coal, limestone injection, or flue gas scrubbing
116
Carbon monoxide
source- incomplete combustion of fossil fuels; effects- binds to HB, reduces O2 carrying ability; reduction- catalytic converter in cars, oxygenated fuels, increased fuel efficiency
117
Ozone
source- secondary pollutant formed from NOx and UV with VOCs; effects - respiratory irritation, damages plants; reduction- reduce NOx emissions, catalytic converter in cars
118
Industrial smog
sulfurous, from burning coal
119
Photochemical smog
formed by photochemical reactions of NO and VOCs in sunlight
120
Acid deposition
pH below 5.6, caused by sulfuric and nitric acids, leached soil nutrients and toxic metals, weakens plants, disrupts aquatic systems
121
Electricity generation
falling water, wind, or steam from water boiled by fossil fuel combustion or nuclear fission turn a turbine connected to a generator
122
Petroleum (oil)
formed from dead aquatic organisms buried in sediments converted by heat and pressure in hydrocarbons
123
Pros of petroleum
cheap, easy to transport, high quality of energy
124
Cons of petroleum
nonrenewable, degradation from drilling transport and refining, burning produced CO2, air pollution
125
Steps in coal formation
peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite (increasing heat, pressure, and C content)
126
Major parts of a nuclear reactor
core, control rods, containment building, steam generator, turbine
127
Two most serious nuclear power plant accidents
Chernobyl (Ukraine 1986) and 3 Mile Island (Harrisburg, PA 1979)
128
Alternate energy sources
not fossil fuels; wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
129
Reasons alternative energy sources not used more
not as economical, fossil fuels heavily financially helped by government
130
Hard/soft path energy policy
Large centralized facilities all connected to the grid; soft path policy: diverse, local, flexible energy sources
131
Multiple land use (US)
National Forests and Natural Resource Lands (managed by bureau land management)
132
Moderately restricted lands
National Wildlife Refuges
133
Restricted use lands
National Parks, National Wilderness Preservation System
134
Municipal solid waste
mostly paper. Most municipal waste is landfilled
135
Sanitary landfill
sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe
136
Problems and solutions with landfills
leachate-liner to prevent groundwater contamination
137
Incineration (burning waste material) advantages
reduced waste volume by 90%, waste heat can be used
138
Incineration (burning waste material) disadvantages
toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin) – can use scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators that remove ash from exhaust fumes before they exit the smokestacks
139
The best way to solve the waste problem
reduce the amount at the source
140
Undernourishment and Malnourishment
Undernourishment: not enough calories. Malnourishment: improper amounts of nutrients
141
Modern farming and Traditional Farming
Modern farming: high fuel and resource use. Traditional farming: polyculture, crop rotation, labor-intensive
142
Love Canal, NY
school and homes built over chemicals buried in an old canal, causing birth defects and cancer
143
Major types of insecticides
chlorinated hydrocarbons- DDT, organophosphates- Malathion, carbamates- aldicarb
144
Pesticide pros
saves lives from insect-transmitted diseases, increased yield, and profits
145
Pesticide cons
resistant strains, pesticide treadmill, ecosystem imbalance, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biomagnifications
146
Biological pest control
use predators, biopesticides, parasites, agricultural practices like crop rotation
147
IPM
pest management through a variety of techniques, agricultural, biological, and use of the minimal amount of pesticides when necessary
148
LD-50
dose (material per unit body weight) of chemical that kills 50% of the exposed population
149
Mutagen
causes changes in DNA, Teratogen: causes birth deformities, carcinogen: causes cancer
150
Minimata disease
mental impairments caused by mercury
