Application of Ethical Theories

Question 1

How does Natural Moral Law view theft?

Answer 1

It contradicts the primary principle of “living in an ordered society” as theft generally contributes to disorder.
Also breaks the secondary precept of “do not steal” and is supported by the biblical commandment that prohibits stealing.

Question 2

Give an example in which Natural Moral Law may justify theft

Answer 2

When a man is starving to death, it would be lawful to steal from another presumably from someone who had enough for themselves.
Aquinas also suggests that it would be lawful for a man to take someone else’s property in order to help a neighbour in dire need

Question 3

How do proportionalists view theft?

Answer 3

The value of a starving man stealing someone’s goods or money in order to save his own life would be in accordance to the primary precept of “preserving life”.
The disvalue of the act is the injustice to the victim of theft and the possible bad effects on society from those who might copy his act.
Overall the theft has more value than the disvalue because saving a life is more important than increasing stocks and goods.

Question 4

How does Natural Moral Law view lying?

Answer 4

Similar to theft, lying violates the primary precept of living in an ordered society since it can hardly be ordered when people constantly lie to each other.
The secondary precept “do not lie” is generally included in the biblical commandments.

Question 5

Give an example of how lying prevents an ordered society in terms of NML?

Answer 5

If people lied in business arrangements, no property would ever be safe.
If husbands lied to wives then no marriage would ever be safe

Question 6

What is the issue of the necessary lie?

Answer 6

Aquinas claims it is lawful to hide the truth by keeping it back however it’s believed that it’s everyone’s duty to tell the truth

Question 7

Give an example of a necessary lie?

Answer 7

If a madman came to your door and asked the whereabouts of his victim. According to your moral duty, you may not lie even if it leads to the death of his victim. However it is lawful to tell a “misleading truth” as it’s telling the truth but also misguides the axeman.

Question 8

How does Situation Ethics view theft?

Answer 8

Situation ethicists claim morality can only be decided with reference to the actual situation

Question 9

Give an example in which Fletcher examines theft

Answer 9

A student wants a thesaurus to pass a test but means he might have steal or buy using stolen, borrowed or gambling money.
Fletcher does not reach a conclusion on what the student should do because the possibilities are endless.
The means involve theft therefore the consequences may involve detection and punishment. However, stealing the book is a pragmatic action and may maximise love and most importantly puts you as a person before the law.

Question 10

How does Situation Ethics view lying?

Answer 10

Fletchers insists there is no intrinsic right and wrong with regard to lying. The rightness or wrongness of an act is situational and the only absolute in each situation is to affirm love.

Question 11

Give an example in which Situation Ethics examines lying

Answer 11

Nurses lie to schizophrenics to keep them calm for treatment.
Fletchers illustrates a lie by reassurance.
Schizophrenia has many different symptoms such as delusions, hearing voices and anxiety. So in this situation, Fletchers claims it affirms christian love

Question 12

How does Virtue Ethics view theft?

Answer 12

Virtue Ethics doesn’t look on specific situations because it focuses more on character building.
Theft is a base action (always wrong) in terms of envy and spitefulness.
Aristotle was really against stealing because him and he’s audience of rich white males would most likely be the victims of theft.

Question 13

When is the one exception in which stealing may be allowed under Virtue Ethics?

Answer 13

Under virtue ethics, when you take something that one already has plenty of, it is not considered stealing but rather referred to as “distributional justice” because the people who have plenty of something are privileged and have many others.

Question 14

How does Virtue Ethics view lying?

Answer 14

The act of lying contradicts the virtues of honesty and truthfulness because it’s forbidden.
Aristotle believed that it’s easy to become an habitual liar meaning lying may become a habit and you’re not able to stop
“What is true is noble and praiseworthy”

Question 15

How does Aristotle and Virtue Ethics view untruthfulness?

Answer 15

Virtue Ethics view untruthfulness just as bad as lying. For example if you over exaggerate or claim “i’m alright” when your not, this is still counted as lying as it’s breaking the virtue of truthfulness.
Aristotle expects you to neither exaggerate or underrate yourself.

Question 16

What is meant when Aristotle said “Truthfulness is a synergy of different virtues”?

Answer 16

We need many virtues to express the truth and to be a virtuous person.
We need temperance, courage and give each other our due (give each other what we deserve).
Example is giving Kevin the cleaner a payrise etc

Question 17

What is embryo research and cloning?

Answer 17

Embryo research is where scientists extract “embryonic stem cells” from human embryos with the aim of testing to find cures for human diseases such as Alzheimers and Parkinsons.
The UK law allows experimentation on human embryos upto the 14th day on the belief that this is the point where an individual begins to develop.
Cloning is a process by which scientists make biological duplicates of an organism.

Question 18

How does Natural Moral Law view embryo research and cloning?

Answer 18

Aquinas would reject both due to abandoning of pro-creation through loving relationships.
Would be seen as failing to worship God who is the creator of life.
Violates the 3rd primary precept because it could break a marriage down.
Human life is created in the image of God, therefore no one should tamper with that.

Question 19

How does Situation Ethics view embryo research and cloning?

Answer 19

Situation Ethics is not opposed to any of the procedures.
Fletcher believed that humans are creators and therefore should redesign in order to banish disease and improve humanity.
He would also favour making and using man-machine hybrids rather than genetically design people for dull, unrewarding and dangerous roles.
Fletcher believes for what is good for “actual persons” is more important than the good for “potential persons” meaning he directs the love concerned towards those who benefit from procedures.

Question 20

How does Virtue Ethics view embryo research and cloning?

Answer 20

Aristotle believes that compassion operates in a wide range of contexts where empathy for others is important as well as plight.
Virtue Ethics isn’t really equipped to deal with these modern day issues due to the changing society from Aristotle’s time.
Virtue Ethics may argue that cloning and research increases human well-being and develops virtues such as courage.

Question 21

What is abortion?

Answer 21

Abortion is the ending of a pregnancy by removing the fetus or embryo before it can survive outside the uterus

Question 22

How does Natural Moral Law view abortion?

Answer 22

Aquinas said a soul is present around 60-80 days after conception meaning if the abortion takes place after 60 days then it is classed as murder.
Abortion violates the precept of preserving innocent life and worshipping God as God is viewed to have been the creator of life.
Catholic Church doesn’t allow abortion of any kind.

Question 23

How does Situation Ethics view abortion?

Answer 23

Fletchers approach is entirely situational.
He refers to case in 1962 where an unmarried and mentally ill girl was raped by another patient and the girls father demanded an immediate abortion but the authorities rejected abortions unless the mothers life was at risk.
Fletcher responded with “rightly terminate this pregnancy, begun in an act of force by an unstable rapist”

Question 24

How does Virtue Ethics view abortion?

Answer 24

If parents have too many kids then abortion should be “before sense and life has begun”
It needs to be for an acceptable reason rather than a selfish one such as worrying about looks and avoiding morning sickness because it’s a potential life killed.
Self determination and strength are virtues that should govern a decision.

Question 25

What is voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

Answer 25

Voluntary euthanasia is where someone who is mentally stable requests their own death due to terminal conditions and is not classed as murder because the person is already dying.
Assisted suicide refers to voluntary death with the help of someone else

Question 26

How does Natural Moral Law view voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

Answer 26

Natural Moral Law rejects any form of suicide or euthanasia.
In “Summa Theologica”, Aquinas wrote that “it is not lawful for a man to take his own life.”
Aquinas believed that death is most fearsome evil.
Neither euthanasia or suicide can ever be justified because it contradicts the primary precept of preserving life and worshipping God.

Question 27

How does Situation Ethics view voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

Answer 27

Situation Ethics has no set rules to be applied.
A situation ethicist may probably think everyone has a right to die as well as a right to life so the case has to be judged on its own merits such as rationality, correct diagnosis and authorisation.
Situationists will always try find a pragmatic decision.

Question 28

How does Virtue Ethics view voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide?

Answer 28

Under VE, if a person is not able to achieve “Eudaemonia” (human good) then living is essentially pointless, therefore Aristotle might accept suicide.
Virtue Ethics doesn’t tell us exactly how to act in a situation; the decision should depend on practical wisdom.
Only virtues can decide the rightness and wrongness of an act.
Enduring pain may also be considered an act of courage.

Question 29

What is capital punishment?

Answer 29

State-sanctioned killing, either on the basis of retribution (punishment) or deterrence (discouragement)

Question 30

How does Natural Moral Law view capital punishment?

Answer 30

In Summa Theologica, Aquinas states that “it is lawful for any private individual to kill a man who has sinned.”
Capital punishment is legitimate but it has to be carried out by the state and in secret.
The executioner isn’t a murderer because God has authorised it and its a potential threat to society (3rd primary precept).

Question 31

How does Situation Ethics view capital punishment?

Answer 31

Situation Ethics has no set view.
It’s response is to be assessed situationally in terms of how an average individual would interpret the demands of love and agape.
Some may have different views about whether or not a situation may brutalise society.
Those who accept the value retribution and deterrence might demand capital punishment.

Question 32

How does Virtue Ethics view capital punishment?

Answer 32

Capital punishment wasn’t discussed by Aristotle.
Capital punishment was used variously in Athenian society so presumably Aristotle accepted that it was part of life.
It is solely about the virtue of Justice which has no excess or deficiency and the good of others.

Question 33

What is the use of animals as food/intensive farming?

Answer 33

The mechanisation of agriculture to produce the maximum yield of crops and farming animals in tiny crates for their fur and skin the animals alive for human benefits.
For example, keeping battery hens and killing them alive is beneficial for people because whilst the cost of living crisis because its cheap meat and not everyone can afford organic meat.

Question 34

How does Natural Moral Law view using animals as food/intensive farming?

Answer 34

Aquinas justifies using animals as food and intensive farming procedures.
It’s common for factory farming to happen because bludgeoning animals to death is a cheaper method.
Any potential rights for animal rights are subsumed under the rights of humans which includes the right to use animals in any way they wish.

Question 35

How does Situation Ethics view using animals as food/intensive farming?

Answer 35

Without the existence of animals, the human race would’ve died out.
The human digestive system is adapted to eating meat, so it would only seem “natural” for humans to use animals as food.
Situationists would argue that the most loving thing to do is to increase intensive farming since this puts the person first.
It might also be argued that the spectacle of starving children is worse than the practise of intensive farming.

Question 36

How does Virtue Ethics view using animals as food/intensive farming?

Answer 36

Aristotle himself would have had no ethical problem with eating meat since he considered that animals existed for human’s sake.
However in modern context it’s not clear how Aristotle would have reacted to intensive farming.
The main virtue here is compassion. Compassion applies to humans and non-humans and factory-farming is not even remotely compassionate

Question 37

How does Natural Moral Law view animal scientific procedures/cloning?

Answer 37

Using animals for scientific procedures is not in its self immoral because it may develops cure to various diseases which essentially fulfils the precept of preserving human life.
The Catholic Church heavily influenced NML and claimed such procedures were “morally acceptable practices”
Aquinas claims if pain upon animals was inflicted by human cruelty then this is morally wrong because the person may “go on to do the same to men”.

Question 38

How does Situation Ethics view animal scientific procedures/cloning?

Answer 38

Fletcher himself was involved in cloning research. He advocated the use of animals in scientific procedures as the means of human welfare as a pragmatic way of saving human life to decrease human suffering.
Most situationists will agree that both methods are practical, effective and agapeic ways of adressing human diseases.
Others however, may argue that it can never be loving to subject animals to the kinds of tests and experiments.
Individuals are required to make up their own minds depending on agapeic calculations.

Question 39

How does Virtue Ethics view animal scientific procedures/cloning?

Answer 39

Aristotle used animals in his own scientific researches
According to Aristotle, using animals in procedures extends our intellect and increases knowledge and so is virtuous.
Cloning improves animal health so may be considered morally good.
Other virtue ethicists would argue the procedures are not compassionate at all as it’s obviously done without the consent of animals and are alternative technological advances.

Question 40

How does Natural Moral Law view Bloodsports?

Answer 40

Little or no objection from Aquinas.
The pain and suffering inflicted upon animals is acceptable.
If the animals dies as a result, that to is acceptable as its seen as a “legitimate” use.
It’s hard to see how animals that are killed or maimed as the result of human bloodsports can have a chance of fulfilling the end for which it was created by God.

Question 41

How does Situation Ethics view Bloodsports?

Answer 41

Situation ethicists most likely wouldn’t put the interests of humans before animal species in cases where human pleasures are gained at the expense of animal pain and suffering.
Bloodsports may damage character, leads to other form of violence and allows people to inflict pain for pleasure.
Nothing agapeic about bloodsports.
Fox-hunting may be claimed as agapeic because foxes kill chickens and lambs etc.

Question 42

How does Virtue Ethics view Bloodsports?

Answer 42

Hunting was a common Greek pastime and was a source of food in Aristotle’s time.
Participation in bloodsports suggests to some a lack of consideration for humans as well as animals.
Some might appeal to the virtue of temperance arguing pleasure at the expense of other beings is not conductive in developing a good character.
More callous than courageous as there are many other hobbies to obtain yourself.

Question 43

How does Natural Moral Law view using animals as a source of organ transplants?

Answer 43

Not an issue for Aquinas.
Humans do have the moral right to use animals in any way they see fit so Aquinas accepts it.
Catholic Medical Association insists all procedures to be done with due concern for animal pain and suffering.
The end is to serve human beings.

Question 44

How does Situation Ethics view using animals as a source of organ transplants?

Answer 44

The morality depends on the situation on what the individual thinks about the status of the animal.
It helps all those in need of a transplantations.
Some situationists will insist that as beings the donors should be dead or consenting humans. However demand will never be met.
Humans are the only pragmatic source of donor organs so the most loving thing is to pursue other technologies.

Question 45

How does Virtue Ethics view using animals as a source of organ transplants?

Answer 45

Compassion shown to humans who might survive through organ donors.
Aristotle approves of scientific research.
As a whole, virtue ethics is about character building and development.