Approaches Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
Who is termed the ‘father of psychology’
A
Wilhelm Wundt
2
Q
Define science
A
a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
3
Q
Describe Wundt’s contribution to psychology
A
- was the first person to call himself a psychologist- believing that all aspects of nature, including the human minds, could be studied a scientifically. His approach paves the way to the acceptance of psychology as a distinct science in its own right, and experimental psychology as the preferred method of studying human behaviour.
- laboratory in Germany- 1879- studied those aspects of behaviour that could only be strictly controlled under experimental conditions- such as perception and reaction time. This marks the beginning of scientific psychology- separating it from its broader philosophical roots.
- his aim was to examine the structure of the minds, and believed the only way to do this was to breakdown behaviours such as perception into their basic elements- represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions
- approach with their forwards and structuralism- isolated the structure of consciousness- the stimuli that him and his coworkers experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all participants
- husd introspection- a form of self examination- trained subjects would attempt to record their thoughts and to breakdown their responses and reactions. For example in his studies of perception, participants would be presented with carefully controlled stimuli, such as visual image, and then asked to provide a description of the inner process as they were experiencing as they looked at the image. This made it possible to compare participants responses to the same stimuli, and so established general theories about perception and other mental processes. Favoured divides that observations into three categories- thoughts, images and sensations.
4
Q
Strengths of Wundt’s approach to psychology
A
Scientific approach:
- some of his methods were systematic and well controlled
- all introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab- ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor
- procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so that’s all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way
- suggests his research can be considered a forerunner for later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach
Contribution:
- produced the first academic journal for psychological research and wrote the first textbook
- often referred to as the founder of modern psychology- even suggested that his pioneering research sets the foundation for approaches that word to come, particularly the behaviourist approach on cognitive psychology
- introspection is still used- Griffiths- used introspection to study the cognitive process of fruits machine gamblers. Asked men to think aloud using a microphone
- Csikzentmilyi and Hunter (2003) used introspection to study happiness in their work in the area of positive psychology.
5
Q
Weaknesses of Wundt’s approach to psychology
A
Unreliable methods:
- introspection relies on non observable responses
- although participants reported on their conscious experiences, the processes themselves, such as perception, were not observable
- therefore, his approach failed due to the lack of reliability of his methods
- his introspective results were not reliably reproduced by other researchers in other labs
Introspection not accurate- lacks validity:
- Nisbett and Wilson- states that we have little knowledge of the process is underlying our behaviour and attitudes, so this challenges the introspective reports. For example, aperson maybe implicitly racist, which influences the way they react to members of a different ethnic group, yes because these attitudes exist outside of conscious awareness, self reports through introspection would not uncover them
Subjective data:
- relies on participants self reporting their mental process
- search data is subjective, some participants may have hidden some of their thoughts
- difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour from such data, and general laws are useful to predict future behaviour, one of the aims of science
- suggests that some of his early efforts to study the minds were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific inquiry
6
Q
What are the goals of psychology as a science
A
- Description – tells us “what” occurred
- Explanation – tells us “why” a behaviour or a mental process occurred
- Prediction – identifies conditions under which a future behaviour or mental process is likely to occur
- Change – applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour and to bring about desired change
7
Q
Describe the emergence of psychology as a science
A
1900s behaviourists:
- by the beginning of the 20th century, the value of introspection was questioned by many, most notably by behaviourist John Watson- the problem was that introspection produced subjective data, so that it was very difficult to establish general laws
- watson, and later Skinner, proposed that a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured
- for this reason, behaviourists focused on behaviours that they could see, and used carefully controlled experiments- bought the language, rigour and methods of the natural sciences into psychology
- their focus on the scientific process involved in learning, alongside the use of carefully controlled lab experiments- could be easily repeated by other researchers to determine whether the same results are obtained- reliability
- the behaviourist approach would go on to dominate scientific psychology for the next 50 years
1950s Cognitive approach:
- the digital revolution gave the 1950s a new generation of psychologists a new metaphor for studying the mind
- cognitive psychologists likened the mind to a computer- for example the multi store model- and tested their predictions about memory and attention using experiments
- the cognitive approach ensured that the study of the mind was, once again, a legitimate and highly scientific aspect of the discipline
1980s Biological approach:
- in more recent times, the biological approach has taken scientific psychology to new levels
- researchers within this area have taken advantage of advances in technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen
- for example, the use of sophisticated scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG to study live activity in the brain
- knew methods commerce such as genetic testing, have also allowed us to better understand the relationship between genes and behaviour
8
Q
Strengths of the emergence of psychology as a science
A
Objective:
- reliance on objective and systematic methods of observations means that knowledge acquired using the scientific method is more than just the passive acceptance of facts
Determinism:
- scientific methods rely on a belief in determinism, so they are able to establish cause and effect of behaviour
- they use well controlled conditions that allow for replicability to be certain of both the cause and effect
Modern psychology:
- modern psychology can claim to be scientific
- psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences- to describe, understands, predict, and control behaviour
- the learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods, for example, lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled unbiased way.
- this suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline
9
Q
Weaknesses of the emergence of psychology as a science
A
Not natural environments:
- by concentrating on objectivity and control in observations, scientific psychologists create contrived situations that may tell us little about how people act in more natural environments
Unobservable subject matter:
- much of the subject matter in psychology is unobservable, therefore cannot be directly measured with any degree of accuracy
- of all the sciences, psychology has to make the biggest inferences- there is a far bigger gap between the actual data obtained in research investigations and the theories put forward to explain the data
Subjective data:
- not all approaches use objective methods
- the humanistic approach for Jack’s the scientific approach, preferring to focus on individual experiences and subjective experience
- the psychodynamic approach makes use of the case study method which does not use representative samples
- the subjects of study- human beings- are active participants in research, responding for example to demand characteristics
- therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thoughts and experience may not always be desirable or possible
Paradigm:
- The philosopher Thomas Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm- a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who work within that subject agree on
- he went on to say that psychology is not a science because it does not have one of these as there is so much internal disagreement at its core
10
Q
Assumptions in the cognitive approach
A
- argues that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically
- as a result, the cognitive approach have investigated those areas of human behaviour that’s were neglected by behaviourists, such as memory, perception and thinking
- these processes are private and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside peoples minds on the basis of their behaviour
- an inference is where a psychologist makes a reasons conclusion about mental process is based on observable behaviour- allow cognitive psychologists to generate theories and models
11
Q
Describe the role of schema
A
- cognitive processing can often be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations, which are often referred to a schema
- they are packages of ideas and information developed through experience- they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system
12
Q
Describe the development of schema
A
- babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviour such as sucking and grasping- for example the grasping schema consists of moving a hand towards an object and shaping the hands around the object in coordination with visual input
- as we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated
- young children for example may develop a schema for a horse involving size, four legs and a tail- when they first encounter a cow for the first time they may initially call it a horse as it fits with the characteristics of the schema- however once they are told it is not a horse, they will modify their existing schema for a horse and create a new schema for a cow
- adults have developed mental representations for everything
- as experiences happen and new information is presented, new schemas are developed and old schemas are changed or modified
13
Q
Positives and negatives of schema
A
Positives:
- enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
- allow us to take cognitive shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment
Negatives:
- cause us to focus on only things that confirm our pre existing beliefs and ideas and perceptions and ignore those things that contradict it
- can cause us to interpret situations incorrectly- when an event that happens that challenges these existing beliefs, people may come up with alternative explanations that that hold on supports their existing schema instead of adapting or changing their beliefs- confirmatory bias
- can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world
14
Q
Supporting research for schema
A
Bugelski and Alampay- the rat man study:
- two groups of participants shown series of pictures- either different faces or different animals
- then shown ambiguous figure- rat-man
- the group who were previously shown faces were more likely to perceive the figure as a face, and the group who were shown animals were more likely to perceive the figure as a rat
15
Q
What two types of models do cognitive psychologists use to help them understand internal mental processes
A
theoretical, computer
16
Q
Describe theoretical models used in cognitive psychology
A
- example- the information processing approach- suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages- input, storage, retrieval- as in the multi store model- based on the way computers function
17
Q
Describe computer models used in cognitive psychology
A
- the start of the use of computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing the mind to a computer, by suggesting there are similarities in the way that information is processed
- these models use the concept of a central processing unit- the brain, the use of coding- to turn information into a usable format, and the use of stores to hold information
- involve actually programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans- if we do then we can suggest that similar processes are going on in the human mind
- these computational models have proved useful in the development of thinking machines or artificial intelligence
18
Q
What is cognitive neuroscience
A
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
19
Q
Describe the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
A
- mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology
- As early as the 1860s Paul Broca had identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe- Broca’s area- could permanently impair speech production
- it is only in the last 25 years, however, with advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scan’s, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
- for example, in research involving tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory,Buckner and Peterson we’re able to show how these different types of long term memory may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex- as well as this, the system in overall charge of working memory- the central executive- is thought to reside in a similar area (Braver et al)
- scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders- for example link between parahippocampal gyrus and OCD, also appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions
- another important development is that a neurosurgeon can now place an electrode on various areas of the exposed brain of an awake patient during surgery while the patient describes what he or she feels and thinks
- the focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain- has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as brain fingerprinting- one possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court
20
Q
Strengths of the cognitive approach
A
Real world application:
- the cognitive approach is probably the dominant approach in Psychology Today and has been applied to a wide variety of practical and theoretical contacts
- for example it has made an important contribution in the fields of artificial intelligence and the development of thinking machines- revolutionise how we live in the future
- conative principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony
- the cognitive approach to psychopathology has been used to explain how much of the dysfunctional behaviour shown by other people can be traced back to faulty thinking process is- has led to the successful treatment of people suffering from illnesses such as depression and OCD using cognitive based therapy
- supports the value of the cognitive approach
Scientific methods:
- uses objective, scientific methods
- cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work
- this has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable, objective data
- in addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of the study
- means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis
- COUNTER- abstract and theoretical- see weaknesses
Flexibility:
- the cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism- the view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we also can exert our free will at times
- hard determinism view says all our behaviour is determined by factors other than our will, such as conditioning and genes- makes the cognitive approach a more flexible position than the behaviouralist approach
21
Q
Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
A
Abstract and theoretical:
- ask cognitive psychology relies on the inference of mental process is, rather than direct observation of behaviour, it can occasionally suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature
- similarly, research studies of mental process is often carried out using artificial stimuli, such as tests of memory involving word lists, that may not represent everyday experience
- therefore, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity
Machine reductionism:
- the cognitive approach is based on machine reductionism
- there are similarities between the human minds and the operations of a thinking machine such as computers- inputs, outputs, storage systems, the use of a central processor
- however, the computer analogy has been criticised- such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and tell this may affect our ability to process information
- for instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses
- this suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
22
Q
Assumptions of the biological approach
A
- suggests that everything psychological is at first biological, so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body
- from a biological perspective, the mines lives in the brain- meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
- contrast’s to the cognitive approach for example that sees mental process is of the minds as being separate from the physical brain
23
Q
Describe the genetic basis of behaviour- how it happens, studies, what it is affected by
A
- the mechanisms of heredity- heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through the genes, and is the reason why offspring take after their parents in terms of psychological characteristics
- twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between a pair of twins- the extent to which both twins share the same characteristic
- if identical (monozygotic) twins are found to have a higher concordance rate than non identical (dizygotic) twins it would suggest a genetic basis- this is because monozygotic twins share 100% of their genes, whereas dizygotic share only 50%- less than 100% CR in MZ suggests environment has some effect- in both cases environment is assumed to be constant
- genes carry the instructions for a particular characteristic- such as intelligence or temperament- but how this develops depends partly on the interaction of the gene with other genes, and partly on the influence of the environment
- the extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes or environment is called the nature-nurture debate
24
Q
Describe genotype and phenotype
A
- Genotype- the genetic codes that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells
- phenotype- a behaviour and physical structure of an individual arising from an interaction between their genotype and their environment- the way that chains are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
- despite having the same genotype, the way identical twins genes are expressed- the phenotype- is different- much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors- nature- an the environment- nurture
25
Describe the relationship between evolution and behaviour
- evolution is the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations- the mechanism behind biological evolution is natural selection
- individuals within a species differ from each other in terms of their physical characteristics and end their behaviour, and at least some of this variation is inherited
- because individuals must compete with each other for access to resources- like foods and mates- those who survive this competition and go on to reproduce will tend to have behaviours that are more likely to lead to survival and reproductive success than those who do not- survival of the fittest- with the term fittest to mean those most suited to this specific environment
- therefore, over successive generations these advantages behaviours will be passed on to offspring and become widespread in the population- natural selection- and those behaviours that are not advantageous will die out
26
Describe the impact of biological structures, name 3 examples/studies
Various arts of the brain have various functions.
Phineas Gage:
- accident- metal bar of 3cm diameter passed through skull and brain
- survived and showed little intellectual impairment, continued to function normally
- showed marked changes to personality went from being mild mannered to quick tempered and foul mouthed
- modern examination of his skull showed damage was done to frontal lobes- suggests these areas are involved with controlling impulses
Maguire et al:
- 16 right handed male london taxi drivers
- compared to control group of 50 RH males who aren't taxi drivers
- used structural MRI scans
- found increased grey matter in the left and right hippocampi- posterior- in taxi drivers compared to non taxi drivers
- correlation found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the right posterior hippocampus
- results provide evidence for structural differences in the brain of London taxi drivers and control- extensive practice with spacial navigation affects the hippocampus
HM:
- see memory notes- hippocampus removed- affected behaviour
27
Describe the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour- neurotransmitters
- when an electrical nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, a chemical known as a neurotransmitter is released- these travel across synapses
- the levels of these neurotransmitters can affect moods and behaviour in individuals
- for example, the dopamine hypothesis in schizophrenia suggests that schizophrenia results from an excess of dopamine- this causes the neurons to fire more often and transmits too many messages- these messages overload may produce many of the symptoms of schizophrenia. A more recent explanation suggests individuals may have too many dopamine receptors, rather than too much dopamine, but the end result is the same
- another example is that there are low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD
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Describe the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour- hormones
- hormones are chemicals produced by the endocrine glands
- the presence of a home and causes a physiological reaction in the cell, altering its activity
- an example of the effects of hormones was investigated by Carre et al (2006)- started a Canadian ice hockey team over the course of a season- found evidence of a surge in levels of the hormone testosterone whenever the team played in the home stadium, suggesting the hormone energised the players to defend their home and territory
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Strengths of the biological approach
Scientific method of investigation:
- the biological approach utilises precise scientific methods to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour
- These include fMRIs, EEGs, family studies and drug trials
- with advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to buy us
- because these methods use objective measurements they can be easily replicated and therefore tested for reliability
- father, the scientific status and association with the medical profession means that the approach enjoys credibility
Real life application:
- increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs thought treat mental illnesses, such as depression- antidepressant drugs can increase levels of the nearest transmitter serotonin at the synapses in the brain
- although they may not work for all, they often are used successfully to manage the condition whilst the patient waits to gain access to talking therapies
- this is a strength of the biological approach as it means that sufferers can gain relief from their condition without the need for hospitalisation- can remain in the community
HOWEVER, they do not work for everyone. Cipriani et al (2018)- compared to 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness. Although most of the drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials, the researchers concluded that the effects of antidepressants, in general, were mainly modest. This challenge is the value of the biological approach because it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of, for example, depression.
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Weaknesses of the biological approach
Cannot establish cause and effect when looking at brain structures:
- even if we know with certainty which part of the brain is active and the level of activity in the brain, we can never be absolutely sure that the brain activity influences the behaviour
- is it that the brain activity causes the behaviour or does the behaviour cause the brain activity?
- so whilst the research is informative, we cannot be absolutely sure of the cause and the effect
Determinism:
- the biological approach is deterministic in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal biological causes of which we have no control over
- this has implications for society and the law- for example, one of the rules of law is that we are responsible for our actions
- however, if it is discovered that there is a genetic basis for being a criminal, would this mean criminals could not be deemed accountable?
- the way in which and individuals genotype is expressed- there phenotype- is heavily influenced by the environment
- suggests that the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment
Natural Selection:
- Critics of Darwins work, such as Karl Popper, claim that it is not possible to falsify the theory of natural selection- a key criterion of science- as we cannot show evolution happening, we can only deduce it has taken place
- HOWEVER, others claim that the basic principles are supported by fossil records- for example sharing dinosaurs changing into birds
31
Describe the behaviourist approach
- only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured- not mental processes
- Watson rejected introspection- too vague an difficult to measure- relied on lab studies instead to maintain control and objectivity
- believe all behaviour is learnt- baby's mind is blank slate (tabula rasa)
- following Darwin, suggested basic properties that govern learning are the same in all species- animals replace humans as experimental subjects in studies
- People have no free will – a person’s environment determines their behaviour
- classical and operant conditioning
32
Describe classical conditioning
- learning via association
- occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together- an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new neutral stimuli.
- The neutral stimuli eventually produces the same response as the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus alone
- NS becomes CS- produces CR even in absence of original UCS- generlised to similar stimuli
33
Describe Pavlov's research into classical conditioning
- Food- UCS- produced salivation- UCR
- Bell- NS
- paired food with bell repeatedly
- bell alone produced salivation (CS producing CR)
34
Describe other features of classical condtioning
- Extinction – After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR
- Stimulus generalisations – Pavlov also discovered that once an animal has been conditioned they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS.
35
Strengths of classical conditioning
Research evidence to support:
- Watson and Rayner- Little Albert (9 months old)
- Loud noise = UCS, produced fear (UCR)
- White rat= NS
- repeatedly paired over 7 weeks
- NS--> CS that produced fear response (CR)
- eventually developed phobia of white rat and similar things
Practical application:
- CC led to treatments of anxiety associated with phobias
- systematic desensitization - therapy based on CC- workers by eliminating the learnt anxious response (CR)
- tries to replace CR of anxiety with CR of relaxation so anxiety no longer felt in feared situation
- therapy been found effective to treat range of phobias
Well-controlled research:
- behaviourist approach based on well controlled research - focused on measurement of observable features with highly controlled lab settings
- breaks down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables removed- cause and effect can be established
36
Weaknesses of classical conditioning
Ignores other factors:
- different species gave different challenges to survive so have different capabilities to learn CC
- Seligman (1970) proposed the concept of preparedness
- animals are prepared to learn association clearly associated with survival needs (e.g. smell of meat with food) but unprepared to associate unrelated things too survival (e.g. sound of bell)
- means CC is not easily implemented and as such, could be limited
37
Describe operant conditioning
- Skinner- best way to understand behaviour is to consider its consequences - positive/negative makes more/less likely to be repeated
-reinforcement is something in the environment that strengthens (or reinforces) a particular behaviour so it makes it more likely to occur- positive and negative
- positive- produces pleasant consequence- e.g. give praise/reward
- negative- takes away something unpleasent e.g. removing anxiety b avoiding stimulus
- punishment- decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. It is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
- positive punishment- giving something unpleasant
- negative punishment- taking away something desireable
38
What are further different types of reinforcement
- continous- provided every time after the desired behaviour
- partial- reinforce occasionally- e.g. used in slot machines- mre resistant to extinction as continuously play in hopes of winning
- variable- number f times between reinforcement changes randomly
- ratio- reinforcement after certain intervals
39
Describe skinners research
- skinners box
- rats and smetimes pigeons
- every time rat activated lever within box it was rewarded with food pellet - animal wouldcontinue to perform behaviour
- could also be conditioned to perform same behaviour to avoid unpleasent stimulus e.g. electric shock
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Strengths of operant condotioning
Empirical support:
- Skinner- used experimental method
- establish cause (IV- consequence of behaviour) and effect (DV- behaviour)
- can establish Cause and effect between consequences of behaviour (positive/negative) and the likelihood of it being repeated
Real life application:
- OC is basis of token economy programmes used in prisons/psychiatric wards
- reward appropriate behaviour with tokens (secondary reinforceres) that can be exchanged for privileges (primary reinforcers)
- have successfully shaped patient/prisoner behaviour to be more acceptable- particularly useful when other therapies that require insight arent available
Well controlled research:
- behaviourist approach based on well controlled research - focused on measurement of observable features with highly controlled lab settings
- breaks down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables removed- cause and effect can be established
41
Weaknesses of operant conditioning
Free will /environmental determinism:
- cristics argue skinners reliance on rats and igeons mean his studies can tell us little about human behaviour
- claim that unlike non-human animals, humans have free will rather than having behaviour determined by positive/negative reinforcement
- HOWEVER, skinner argued that free will is merely an illusion and what we believe are chosen behaviours are actually the product of external forces that guide our behaviour on a daily basis
Mechanistic view of behaviour:
- animals seen as passive and machine like responders to the environment, with little or no conscious insight into our behaviour
- other approaches such as cognitive or SLT have emphasisedthe importance of mental events during learning
- these processes which mediate between stimulus and response suggest people play more active role in our own learning- behavioursit may apply less to human than animal behaviour
Ethical issues:
- animals housed in harsh, cramped conditions
- kept below natural weight so always hungry
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Assumptions of social learning theory
- It combines principles from the both behaviourist and the cognitive approaches
- It is concerned with human rather than animal behaviour
- SLT sees people as active manipulators of their own environment rather passive receivers of experiences
- Learning occurs through the observation of role models
- Observational learning can take place without any reinforcement – simply observing the model is sufficient for learning to take place
- Reinforcement may be direct or indirect (vicarious reinforcement)
- Observational learning uses cognitive processes such as memory. These processes occur between stimulus and response are known as mediational processes
- Much human behaviour is learned in interpersonal situations
43
Describe vicarious reinforcement
- for indirect learning to take place, an individual observes the behaviour of others
- the Atlanta may imitate this behaviour but, in general, imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded- reinforced- rather than punished
- first, the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly also observes the consequences of a behaviour
44
Describe modelling
- in order for social learning to take place, some must carry out or model the behaviour
- individuals that perform this role are referred to as models
- they can be live models such as parents or siblings, or symbolic such as someone portrayed in the media
45
Describe imitation ad teh factors that affect it
- refers to the copying of behaviour by others
- the key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated are: the characteristics of the model, the observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour, and the observed consequences of their behaviour
46
Describe identification
- refers to the extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels that they are similar to the person
- in order to identify with a model, observers must feel that they are similar enough to them, so that they will receive the same outcome
- research suggests thought children are more likely to identify with, and preferable learn from, models who are similar to them, particularly same sex models (e.g. Shutts et al, 2010)
47
Describe the role of mediational process is in SLT, name the four
- we don't automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitated- there is some cognition involved prior to imitation- mediation process is
4 proposed by Bandura:
- Attention- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
- Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered
- motor reproduction- at the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
- motivation- the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
first two relate to the learning of behaviour and last two relate to the performance of behaviour- unlike traditional behaviourism, the learning and performance of behaviour need not occurred together- observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.
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Who proposed/investigated SLT
Bandura, Bandura and Walters
49
Describe Bandura's (1961) method and findings
- recorded behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave aggressively towards a bobo doll
- the adult hit the dog with a hammer and shouted abuse at it
- when these children were later observed playing with various toys, including a bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and other toys than those who observed a non aggressive adult
50
Describe Bandura and Walters (1963) method and findings
- showed videos to children of adults behaving aggressively towards the bobo doll
- one group of children saw the adult praised for their behaviour- told well done
- a second group so the adult punished for their aggression towards the doll, by being told off
- the third group (control) saw the aggression without any consequence
- when given bobo doll, the first group showed much more aggression, followed by the third group, and then the second
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Strengths of social learning theory
- Supported by Banduras research
Helps explain cultural differences/real world application:
- theory is able to explain cultural differences in behaviour
- social learning principles can account for how children learn from other individuals around them and through media
- can explain how social norms are transmitted through society, and can be used to explain a variety of behaviours e.g. attitudes to social norms
Recognises importance of cognitive factors:
- recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning
- neither classical or operant conditioning can offer adequate account of learning on their own
- humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions
- suggests SLT offers more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes
Reciprocal determinism:
- emphasised this in the sense that we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but we also exert an influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform
- this element of choice suggests that there is some free will in the way we behave
- this contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility of free will
52
Weaknesses of social learning theory
Based on contrived lab studies:
- evidence on which it was based was gathered through lab studies
- many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observations of young children in a lab
- lab studies often criticised for contrived nature where PPs may respond to demand characteristics
- been suggested that as the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, children were simply behaving in a way which they thought was expected
- suggests the research may tell us little about how children actually learn about aggression in real life
Counter evidence to video imitation:
- videos of aggressive behavior more likely to frighten children than make them frightening
- isolated incidents better explained by other factors e.g. social deprivation, child abuse, and early exposure to violence in the home
Overlooks alternative biological explanations:
- in Banduras study boys were consistently more aggressive than girls, despite observing the same modelled behaviour
- SLT makes little reference to the impact of biological factors
- many hormonal factors e.g. differences in testosterone- more in boys
- this has important influence on behaviour that is not accounted fro by SLT
53
Briefly outline the humanistic approach
- concerned with explanations of healthy growth in individuals
- developed as a rebellion against the limitations of behaviourist and psychodynamic psychology
- led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
- studies the whole person, and the uniqueness of each individua
54
Describe free will as part of humanistic psychology
- rejected the assumptions of the behaviourist perspective which is characterised as deterministic, focused on reinforcement of stimulus-response behaviour
- also rejected the psychodynamic approach because it also is deterministic, with unconscious irrational and instinctive forces determining human thought and behaviour
- assumes people have free will in terms of the choices we make in life
- means that humanistic psychologists rejects scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour
- believe that as active agents we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws
- people are still effected by internal and external influences, but are also active agents who can determine their own development
- often referred to as the person-centred approach in psychology
55
Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs
- what motivates behaviour to meet our full potential
- in order to meet goal of self actualisation, a number of deficiency needs must first be met
- 1st- physiological- breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
- 2nd- safety- security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health, property
- 3rd- love/belonging- friendship, family, sexual intimacy
- 4th- esteem- self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of and by others
- 5th- self actualisation
56
Describe self-actualisation
- most have an innate desire to reach their full potential- personal growth is part of what it means to be human
- self actualisation is the upmost level of personal growth and the hierarchy
- personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied, and goal-orientated
- not everyone reaches self actualisation- Maslow believed 1%
- many psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their potential
- involves morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts
- Self-actualisation is a peak experience achieved in moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they are able to leave behind all doubts, fears, and inhibitions
57
Describe what Roger's believed needs to occur for personal growth
- an individual’s concept of self (the way they see themselves) must be broadly equivalent to, or have congruence with, their ideal self (the person they want to be)
- If the gap is too large between the two ‘selves’ then the person will experience a state of incongruence
- self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence
- In order to reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self, Rogers developed person-centred counselling
58
Where did Rogers believe many adult psychological issues come from
- many of the issues we experience as adults, such as worthlessness and low self-esteem, have their roots in childhood
- can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard (or lack of unconditional love) from our parents
- A parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love (conditions of worth) by claiming or suggesting ‘I will only love you if…’, is storing up psychological issues for the child in the future
59
Describe client centred therapy (CCT)
- Rogers saw that one of his roles as an effective therapist was to provide his clients with the unconditional positive regard that they had failed to receive as children
- CCT is strongly non-directive
- based on Roger’s view that each person is the best expert on themselves and therefore should be encouraged to find their own solution
- The counsellor encourages the person to talk as openly as they can
- the counsellor listens intently and reflects back what they think is being said (‘what I think you are saying is …’), to check their understanding
- aim is for the counsellor to enter their client’s world and see it as if it were their own
- The counsellor accepts their client’s feelings and offers them unconditional positive regard, accepting and praising them for who they are without imposing conditions of worth
- acceptance means that they are able to clarify and accept their feelings, so that feelings of harmony and acceptance of the self can replace inner conflict
- Humanists believe that the success of therapy or counselling has less to with the techniques used by the therapist than with the relationship that the therapist develops with the client, because this gives the client room to examine their own problems, sources of unhappiness and ways of seeing the world
- They can then decide what they want to change and take the steps to change it
- regarded as gestalt therapy- concerned with the 'whole person'- encourages client to accept every aspect of themselves
- The British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP) identifies person centred therapy as their core approach
60
Describe an example of an activity involved in client-centred therapy
- Q sort assessment- Stephenson- adopted as part of CCT:
- measures congruence/incongruence
- series of cards- each containing a personal statement e.g. 'needs recognition from others'
- sorts into forced distribution under real or ideal self
61
Strengths of the humanistic approach
Non-reductionist:
- rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components (reductionism)
- behaviourists reduce to learning from stimuli, cognitivists to information processing machines, biologists to physiological processes, Freud to conflict between Id, ego and superego
- humanistic psychologists advocate holism- idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person
- can gain a better insight into an individuals behaviour through qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews
- may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour in its real-world context
Positive approach:
- optimistic approach
- humanistic psychologists have been praised for 'bringing the person back into psychology'-
- Freud saw all people as prisoners of their past, and claim we all exist between common unhappiness and despair
- in contrast, humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential, and in control of their lives
- suggests that humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other options
62
Weaknesses of the humanistic approach
Untestable concepts:
- humanisms directly adopts a non-scientific approach to studying humans
- e.g. belief in free will is in opposition to the deterministic laws of science
- also, the areas investigated by humanism, such as emotions nd consciousness, are very difficult to scientifically study
- the ideal of science is experiment- experiments reduce behaviour to IV's and DV's- unlike behaviourism, there are relatively few concerts that can be broken down to single variables and measured
- the outcome of such scientific limitations means that there is a lack of empirical evidence to support the key theories of the approach
Limited application:
- unlike other approaches, humanistic psychology has few real-world applications to the real world
- Rogerian therapy has revolutionised counselling, and Maslow's hierarchy has been used to understand motivaton in the workplace
- however, beyond these specialist areas the approach has had limited impact in comparison with behaviourist or biological approaches
- could be because it lacks a sound evidence-base, and due to the fact that the approach is often perceived as a loose set of rather abstract concepts rather than a comprehensive theory
Cultural bias:
- many ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy, and personal growth would be much more readily associated with countries that have more individualist tendencies (e.g. the US)
- countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise more the needs of the group and interdependence
- in such countries, the ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important as in others (e.g. self-actualisation)
- therefore, it is possible that this approach doesn't apply universally and is a product of the cultural context in which it was developed
63
Assumptions of the humanistic approach
- Every person has their own unique way of perceiving and understanding the world and that the things they do only make sense in this light. Therefore, the aim of this approach is not objectivity as the other approaches; its aim is to understand people’s subjectivity.
- According to this approach, people are self-determining, which means that they have free will they can make choices about the way they think and act. These choices are not determined by biological or other external factors
64
Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- Our behavior and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives
- Our behavior and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences
- All behavior has a cause (usually unconscious), even slips of the tongue. Therefore all behavior is determined
- Personality is made up of three parts (i.e., tripartite): the id, ego, and super-ego
65
Describe the role of the unconscious (psychodynamic approach)
- Freud suggested that our conscious minds (the part we are aware of) was just the ‘tip of the iceberg’
- unconscious part is much larger and contains biological drives and instincts
- unconscious mind also contains repressed traumatic memories- the mind actively prevents traumatic memories from the unconscious reaching conscious awareness- uses defence mechanisms
- most of our everyday actions and behaviours were the result of the unconscious mind, which reveal themselves in slips of the tongue (or ‘Freudian slips’)
- preconscious- contains thoughts and emotions that aren't currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired
66
Name the 3 aspects of personality proposed by Freud
- id
- ego
- superego
67
Describe the id
- operates on the pleasure principle
- primitive- seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts
- present from birth
- demands immediate gratification, regardless of circumstance
- Gratification of the id results in pleasure and frustration of the id leads to tension (an unpleasant state)
68
Describe the ego
- works on the reality principle
- mediates between the other two parts of the personality
- may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands
- must make compromises between the impulsive demands of the id and the moralistic demands of the superego
- develops around the age of 2 years
69
Describe the superego
- based on the morality principle
- develops around the age of 4 or 5 years- end of the phallic stage
- internalised idea of right or wrong
- represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent, producing feelings of guilt for wrongdoing
- also includes an ego-ideal, which is a guide of how we should behave that is constructed based on parental standards
- punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt)
70
Name Freud's psychosexual stages (with ages)
- oral- 0-1 years
- anal- 1-3 years
- phallic- 3-5/6 years
- Latency - 5/6 years- puberty
- genital - puberty onwards
71
Describe the oral stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict in it
- Focus of pleasure is on the mouth
- mothers breast can be the object of desire
- sucking & biting are the most common activities
- consequences- Oral fixation: smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
72
Describe the anal stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict in it
- Focus of pleasure is the anus
- concern on the control of bodily waste- child gains o
pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
- Toilet training is an important part of this stage
- consequences- Anally retentive (perfectionist, obsessive) or anally expulsive (disorganised, sloppy, thoughtless)
73
Describe the phallic stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict in it
- Oedipus & Electra complex occur – which believe that children unconsciously desire their opposite sex parent and view the same sex parent as a rival
- Boys fear castration from their father and so repress their desire for their mother & identify with their father
- Girls suffer penis envy, and their desire to have a child with their father leads to them identifying with their mother
- focus of pleasure is on the genitals
- consequences- Phallic personality- Narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual.
74
Describe the latency stage
- Sexual urges lay dormant here, and children are generally too engrossed with play for anything else
- earlier conflicts are repressed
75
Describe the genital stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict in it
- Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
- consequences- difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
76
Describe defence mechanisms (in the psychodynamic approach), name 3
- aim to reduce the anxiety caused by conflict between the superego and the id
- unconscious and can help explain many behaviours
- often involve some form of distortion of reality and as a long term solution they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable
- repression, denial, displacement
77
Describe repression (the psychodynamic approach)
- motivated forgetting
- An anxiety provoking, threatening thought is pushed out of the conscious into the unconscious mind
- These fears may surface in dreams or ‘Freudian slips’
78
Describe displacement (the psychodynamic approach)
- Transferring feelings from a true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
79
Describe denial (the psychodynamic approach)
- Refusing to believe that the threatening situation is occurring (some aspect of reality)
80
Name a case study in the psychodynamic approach
Little Hans
81
Describe the case study of little Hans (Freud)
- 5 year old boy
- developed phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street
- suggested his phobia was a form of displacement- repressed fear of his father was transferred onto others
- thus, horses were merely a symbolic representation of Hans' real unconscious fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex
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Strengths of the psychodynamic approach
Real world application:
- introduced psychotherapy
- Freud established psychoanalysis- first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
- employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious- e.g. dream analysis
- Claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with
- psychoanalysis is the 'forerunner' to many modern day 'talking therapies' such as counselling
- shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment
COUTER:
- while Freudian therapists have claimed success for clients with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate (and even harmful) for people experiencing more serious mental disorders, such as schizophrenia
- Many of the symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g. paranoia, delusional thinking) mean that those with the disorder have lost their grip on reality and can't articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis
Explanatory power:
- strength is ability to explain human behaviour
- theory is controversial and sometimes bizarre, but nevertheless had huge influence on psychology and contemporary thought-alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century
- has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena, including personality development, the origins of psychological disorders,
Case studies:
82
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach
Real world application:
- introduced psychotherapy
- Freud established psychoanalysis- first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
- employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious- e.g. dream analysis
- Claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with
- psychoanalysis is the 'forerunner' to many modern day 'talking therapies' such as counselling
- shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment
COUTER:
- while Freudian therapists have claimed success for clients with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate (and even harmful) for people experiencing more serious mental disorders, such as schizophrenia
- Many of the symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g. paranoia, delusional thinking) mean that those with the disorder have lost their grip on reality and can't articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis
Explanatory power:
- strength is ability to explain human behaviour
- theory is controversial and sometimes bizarre, but nevertheless had huge influence on psychology and contemporary thought-alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century
- has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena, including personality development, the origins of psychological disorders, moral development, and gender identity
- also significant in drawing attention to the connection between our childhood, such as our relationships with our parents, and our later development
- suggests that overall, the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psychology ( as well as art, literature and other human endeavours)
Case studies:
- Freud’s theories were based on in-depth studies of specific individuals such as little Hans
- these case studies can gather rich and detailed information about the individual
COUNTER:
- they are idiographic
- It may be difficulty to make universal claims about behaviour on the basis of a few individuals
- Much of Freud’s work with these individuals was highly subjective and other researchers would be unlikely to draw the same conclusions for example about Little Hans
- Therefore Freud’s methods lack scientific rigour
83
Weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach
Untestable concepts:
- Popper- argues that the psychodynamic approach is unfalsifiable- doesn't meet the scientific criterion of falsification
- the theory is not open to empirical testing (and the possibility of being disproved)
- many of Freud's concepts (e.g. the Oedipus complex) operate at an unconscious level, making the difficult (if not impossible to test)
- ideas based on subjective study of case studies- hard to make universal claims about behavior
- suggests that Freud's theory was pseudoscientific (not a real science), rather than established fact
Psychic determinism:
- The approach suggests that no behaviour is an accident
- Even something as basic as a ‘slip of the tongue’ (Freudian slip) is driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning
- this suggests all behaviour is driven by unconscious drives or early childhood conflicts
- critics claim this is an extreme view because it dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour
84
Describe the biological approach to the nature/Nurture debate
- nature- behaviour is due to innate characteristics of genetics and chemical imbalances
- genetic blueprint (genotype)- however element of nurture as phenotype (how genotype is expressed) depend on interaction with environment
85
Describe the psychodynamic approach to the nature/Nurture debate
- mostly nature
- our behaviour is mostly driven by innate drives but is shaped by early childhood experience e.g. relationships with parents
86
Describe the humanistic approach to the nature/Nurture debate
- Nurture
- an individual seeks to achieve personal growth within the environment
- regard parents, friends, and wider society as having a critical impact on self-concept
87
Describe the behaviourist approach to the nature/Nurture debate
- nurture
- characterised babies as 'blank slates' at birth
- all behaviour is learnt through the environment- associations and reinforcement contingencies
88
Describe the social learning approach to the nature/Nurture debate
- nurture
- behaviour learnt through environment- observation and imitation
89
Describe the cognitive approach to the nature/Nurture debate
- both
- many of information processing abilities and schemas are innate e.g. born wit certain abilities like language/memory
- however we also interact with the environment and thoughts and beliefs develop based on experiences
90
Describe the behaviourist approach to the determinism/free will debate
- environmental, hard determinism
- all behaviour caused by environmental factors that we are unable to control
91
Describe the social learning approach to the determinism/free will debate
- reciprocal determinism
- we are influenced by our environment, however, we also exert some influence on it through the behaviours we choose to perform
92
Describe the cognitive approach to the determinism/free will debate
- soft determinism
- we are choosers of thoughts and behaviours, however, these choices only operate in limits of what we know and have experienced
- partially free will as have choices over thought processes
93
Describe the Biological approach to the determinism/free will debate
- hard, biological determinism
- behaviour is controlled by biological factors (genes, hormones etc)
- genetic determinism- assumption that much of behaviour is directed by innate influences
94
Describe the humanistic approach to the determinism/free will debate
- free will
- individuals have control over their environment and are capable of change
- operate as active agents who determine their own development
- positive approach to helping individual
95
Describe the psychodynamic approach to the determinism/free will debate
- psychic determinism
- behaviour determined by unconscious drives and childhood experiences- ultimate cause
- only rationalised by conscious mind- sense of free will is illusion
96
Describe the biological approach to the holism/reductionism debate
- environmental reductionism
- breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response units to be tested in lab
97
Describe the social learning approach to the holism/reductionism debate
- mostly environmental reductionism
- breaks behaviour down into key processes e.g. imitation and modelling
- however emphasises cognitive factors that mediate learning and how these interact with external influences
98
Describe the cognitive approach to the holism/reductionism debate
- machine reductionism
- presents people as information processing systems- ignores influence of emotion
99
Describe the biological approach to the holism/reductionism debate
- biological reductionism
- behaviour broken down into biological structures/processes
- explains behaviour at level of gene/neurone
100
Describe the humanistic approach to the holism/reductionism debate
- holism
- involves investigating all aspects of the individual, including the effects of interaction with others and wider society
101
Describe the psychodynamic approach to the holism/reductionism debate
- both
- behaviour reduced to sexual drives/biological influences
- however, also argued that personality is a dynamic interaction between 3 parts of personality- could be viewed as more holistic
102
Describe the behaviourist approach to the explanation/treatment of abnormal behaviour
- sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive or faulty learning in the sense that inappropriate/destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced
- behaviour therapies to treat e.g. systematic desensitisation- aim to condition new, more healthy reponses e.g. for phobias
103
Describe the social learning approach to the explanation/treatment of abnormal behaviour
- modelling/observational learning used to explain how negative behaviours e.g. aggression learned through dysfunctional role models
104
Describe the cognitive approach to the explanation/treatment of abnormal behaviour
- negative triads/schemas root of abnormal behaviour
- cognitive therapy, may be combined with behaviour therapy e.g. CBT
- aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking that is assumed to be root of maladaptive behaviour
105
Describe the biological approach to the explanation/treatment of abnormal behaviour
- biological abnormalities e.g. COMT gene, limbic system in OCD
- drug therapies revolutionised treatment e.g. SSRIs for chemical imbalances in the brain
106
Describe the psychodynamic approach to the explanation/treatment of abnormal behaviour
- Freud saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and overuse of defence mechanisms
- psychoanalysis- therapy- not largely successful however as requires considerable input from the patient (may be time/emotional availability issues)- CBT more successful
107
Describe the humanistic approach to the explanation/treatment of abnormal behaviour
- issues due to incongruence between self concept and ideal self
- Roger's client centred therapy- aims to close gap, improve self-esteem, and stimulate personal growth
108
Describe the psychodynamic approach to development
- psychosexual stages of development that are determined by age
- saw very little development after entering the genital stage in teen years
109
Describe the cognitive approach to development
- stage theories
- development of shcemas- become increasingly complex as child gets older
110
Describe the biological approach to development
- the process of maturation is important
- genetically determined changes in a child physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics
111
Describe the humanistic approach to development
- see the development of the self as ongoing throughout life
- childhood is a particularly important period and a child's relationship with their parents is important in terms of unconditional positive regard
112
Describe the behaviourist/social learning approach to development
- do not offer coherent stage theories
- instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous- occurring at any stage
113
Describe the behaviourist approach to the scientific method
- Use of experiments and Controlled observations which are objective, systematic and replicable due to high control of variables, thus reliability is high
- use of lab and animal studies
114
Describe the social learning approach to the scientific method
- uses experiments e.g. Bandura’s Bobo doll studies
- mostly scientific as takes into account cognitive mediational processes
115
Describe the cognitive approach to the scientific method
- Use of experiments and Controlled observations which are objective, systematic and replicable due to high control of variables, thus reliability is high.
- Use of brain scans which are objective, systematic- cognitive neuroscience
- However, focus on unobservable processes may lead to an element of interpretation and inference which may be biased
- also uses inference which can be subjective
116
Describe the biological approach to the scientific method
- Use of experiments and controlled observations which are objective, systematic and replicable due to high control of variables, thus reliability is high
- Use of neuroimaging techniques which are objective, replicable and systematic
- objective methods e.g. brain scanning
117
Describe the Humanistic approach to the scientific method
- Rejects scientific methods and has many untestable concepts
- There is a lack of empirical support to back up it’s claims
