Approaches Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
Emergence of psychology
A
Rene Descartes (17th century) = suggested that mind and body are separate
John Locke (17th century) = father of empiricism. Theory that knowledge generates from a personal experience
Charles Darwin (19th century) = his evolutionary theories made psyc branch into genetics relating to biopsyc
2
Q
Wundt + introspection
A
Known as father of psychology. Published first book and opened first lab
He broke down behaviours in basic elements to study the structure of the human mind. He used introspection to investigate
3
Q
Introspection
A
Analysing your own thoughts whilst being presented with an object/experience
(Non observable responses)
4
Q
Wundts scientific approach and the 2 assumptions
A
All behaviour has been caused / determined
If behaviours being caused by something should be able to predict how they’ll behave
Scientific methods is use of investigative methods:
Objective = make sure biases don’t effect data Systematic = measurement/recording of data is precise Replicable= can be repeated by other researchers and get similar results
5
Q
Evaluation of Wundt + introspection
A
Used standardised procedure
But it relies on PP self report which make the findings
Introspection is a subjective way of collecting data. Data that’s collected through personal interactions
So hard to replicate
Lacks validity due to bias
6
Q
Assumptions of behaviourism
A
All behaviour is learnt from experience/ environment
Humans are born as a blank slate
Should be studied scientifically based on what we can observe
We can study animals and generalise to humans
Learning can be explained in terms of stimulus and response
7
Q
Classical conditioning
A
Learning by association
8
Q
Operant conditioning
A
Behaviour is learnt through consequences
Behaviour becomes more/less likely to happen depending on what happens after it
9
Q
Skinner’s rat experiment
A
Method:
Placed a hungry rat inside the Skinner box
Every time the rat pressed the lever when the switch was green it was rewarded with a food pellet
Everything it pressed the lever when switch was red it was punished with electric shock
After continuously doing this the rat only pressed the lever when the switch was green
10
Q
Strengths of skinners study
A
Supports operant conditioning theory
Learning about reinforcement and punishment helps society in other areas like workplace
11
Q
Limitations of skinners study
A
Human behaviour is different from rats
Unethical, could affect validity of results
12
Q
Primary reinforcer
A
Something necessary for survival like foods
E.g rat food
13
Q
Secondary reinforcer
A
Those with provide the means to get a primary reinforcer like money
E.g pressing the lever
14
Q
Continuous reinforcement
A
When you continue to do something
15
Q
Positive reinforcement
A
Reward for the desired performance
E.g when rat presses lever when green and gets food pellets
16
Q
Negative reinforcement
A
When something unpleasant is removed after the desired behaviour is done
E.g when rat pressed lever when green it avoided electrical if shock
17
Q
Punishment
A
An unpleasant stimulus when undesired behaviour happens. Causes mental or physical distress
Or withdraw a pleasant stimulus
18
Q
Difference between reinforcement and punishment
A
Reinforcement always makes a behaviour more likely
Punishment always stops a behaviour
19
Q
Schedules of reinforcement
A
It’s a rule saying in which instances of behaviour will be reinforced
Sometimes a behaviour might be reinforced every time it happens
Other times it might not be reinforced at all
20
Q
Continuous schedules
A
The desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it happens
This is used in initial stages of learning to create a strong association between the behaviour and response
21
Q
Partial schedules
A
Once the response is established by a continuous schedule it’s switched to a partial one
The response is reinforced some of the time
Behaviours are learnt more slowly with partial reinforcement but harder to forget
22
Q
4 schedules of partial reinforcement
A
Fixed ratio schedules = response is reinforced only after a number (E.g 5) responses
Variable ratio schedules = a response is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of responses
Fixed interval schedules = where the first response is rewarded after a certain amount of seconds or minutes has gone past. Causes high amount of responding near the end of the interval but slow responding straight after the delivery of the reinforcer
Variable interval schedules = a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has gone. This produces slow and steady response
23
Q
SCOUT of operant conditioning
A
Supporting evidence = Skinner box study
Usefulness = applies to real life situations like schools and prisons
Testable = can’t scientifically prove it because it’s an observable behaviour
24
Q
Pavlovs dog and classical conditioning
A
Food = UCS ————> salivation = UCR
Bell (NS) + food ——> salivation = UCR
Bell (CS —-> salivation = CR
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Meaning of UCS UCR NS CS
```
UCS = unlearned reflex
UCR = natural response
NS = stimulus that produces no other response than catching you attention
CS = a response that it learnt
CR
```
26
Extinction
When CS is used too much and makes it ineffective
27
Evaluation of classical conditioning
Theory has supportive evidence from Pavlov
But he used animals to test out his theory so criticised for being anthropomorphism (suggesting that non humans have human traits)
But humans also show similar behaviour E.g blink research babies
We see everyday evidence of classical conditioning like when we smell our fave food we salivate
It can benefit society by treating issues like alcohol addiction
Classical conditioning can seem too simplistic. Can’t explain behaviours like phobias you naturally have
28
Stimulus generalisation
Scared of something by a controlled stimulus so you’re scared and have same reaction to something similar
29
Little Albert experiment
| Watson + Raynor
Presented LA with a rat and he showed no fear
Watson presented a rat with a loud bag that scared LA and made him cry
After continuous association of the white rat and loud noise he was classically conditioned to be scared of the rat
His fear also generalised to similar stimuli like fur coat
Unethical
30
Draw out UCR diagram for little Albert study
```
Sound = UCS ——> crying = UCR
Rat = NS ——> no fear = NR
```
Rat + sound —-> UCR fear of rat
Rat = CS —-> fear = CR
31
Evaluation of little albert study
Only used 1 PP difficult to generalise findings, it’s not repr wentarige
He was also in an institution other young people might not act the same why so can’t replicate findings
Shows how fear can develop by associating things
Challenges anthropomorphism that we can’t generalise from animals to humans as principles are the same
Difficult to explain all phobias through classical conditioning some don’t have unpleasant experiences that trigger them. Phobias might be learnt from copying those around us
Unethical, gives infant a phobia which can stay for life
32
Assumptions of social learning theory SLT
Share ideas with behaviourism that people are shapes by environment and learning (nurture)
We learn by observing and imitating behaviours
Importance of internal mental processes (mediating cognitive factors thinking)
Learning and behaviour is based on cognitive and behavioural processes (thinking and doing)
Reinforcement and punishment are surly important factors but can occur vicariously (through others not us)
33
Modelling
Learning through observation of other people which could lead to imitation of behaviour leads to desirable consequences
34
Identification
Taking on beliefs and qualities of another person
| More complex than imitation that’s just copying one act
35
Bandura’s reasons for imitating a model and their behaviour
Similar to us (same sex)
| We get positive reinforcement
36
Bandura’s 4 mediation all processes when modelling someone’s actions
ARRM
```
A = attention, paying attention
R= remember, must retain it
R = Reproduce practise it
M = motivation, must have motivation to carry out
```
37
Bandura and vicarious reinforcement
He says you don’t automatically copy a behaviour
| We look at the consequences and imitation depends on that
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Vicarious reinforcement
Indirect reinforcement
| See consequences of others actions
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Bandura’s research into aggression
72 children male and female
Matched pairs rated on a scale
Adults would beat up bobo dolls after children imitated actions
Boys more likely to imitate physical aggression
Girls more likely to imitate verbal aggression
Role Model adult
Imitation copying behaviour
40
Evaluation of Bandura’s study 1961
It’s generalisable but only used American children
But can’t be generalised to adults and ethnic children
Could be applied to real life, shows we observe behaviours in the environment
Lacks ecological validity because of artificial setting
Standardised method saw the same violent acts in same sequence
Bandura repeated study with variations. Each time children would mimic act even if model was cartoon cat. They’re really studying aggression
Carried out in lab setting and kids encouraged to act out in unfamiliar setting. Demand characteristics. Lacks mundane realism
Reduced PP variable by matched pairs. Has high validity
Ethical guidelines broken by exposing children to aggression
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Reinforcement and SLT
Believe reinforcement plays a role if it’s direct or indirect (models rewarded)
42
Similarities and differences between SLT and behaviourism
SLT believes in vicarious reinforcement
Behaviourism believe in direct reinforcement
Both believe in reinforcement
43
Assumptions of cognitive approach
Humans are like computers. We input, process and output
Thought processes can be studied scientifically
Need to acknowledge thought processes that occur between stimulus and response
Think we can use inference to study thought processes
Only study scientifically
44
How is cognitive approach similar to behaviourism
They both believe in stimulus and response
45
The internal process
Stimulus -> info processing -> response
| Psychologists say our behaviour is determined by the way we process info taken in from our environment
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Examples of mental processes studies by cognitive psychologists
```
Perception
Memory
Problem solving
Attention
Language
Thinking
```
This approach investigates area of human behaviour neglected by behaviourists
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Schema / schemata
Your mental building blocks about the world that help you make sense or it
Scheme for college:
Come into class
Sit down
Take equipment out
These frameworks help us organise and interpret info within the brain
It changes the way we feel in situations
Can be helpful by helping us on how to interpret a situation
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Types of schema
Role schema
Even schema
Self schema
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Role schema
Behaviours expected in a social situation
| Like waiters should be warm and welcoming
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Event schemas
Scripts about expectations in social institutions like a restaurant
Script is in a chronological order like going to a restaurant you expect to be greeted guided to a table then order
51
Self schema
Projections / ideas about ourselves
E.g a confident person would cause it s to act in a self assured way
52
Why might schema be useful ?
Helps us predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
Helps us process vast amounts of info rapidly
Prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
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Why might schemas have negative consequences?
Can distort our interpretation of sensory information
Lead to errors / inaccurate memories
Can cause biased recall / see what we expect
Negative / faulty scheme may have negative impact on mental health
54
Bartlett 1932 war of ghosts study
Aim= investigate how memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge. See how memory restructures based schema processing
Told a story and asks PP to recall it
We found participants tend to distort memory by:
Assimilation = change to fit our norms
Levelling = shorten every time we retell a story
Sharpening = change order for it to make sense to us
Conclusion= schemata affects our way of processing information
55
Inference
Make an assumption based on what you can see
Cognitive psychologists infer mental processes from comparisons between input and output (info a person receives and behaviour they produce)
They judge what you were thinking (mental processes) by looking at your behaviour
E.g multi store memory model
56
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Advances help us see how living brain works
| E.g mri scan
57
Strengths of cognitive approach
Highly controlled methods (lab experiments produce objective reliable data)
Considers overlap of biology and psychology (study of the mind has established credible scientific basis)
Development of treatments (depression and behavioural therapy) good descriptions of what processes occur which informs treatments
Considers areas forgotten by other approaches (has applied to wide range of practical and theoretical contexts)
58
Limitations of cognitive approach
Lacks ecological validity (research done in lab settings PP responses won’t be accurate)
Simplistic and mechanistic (forgets influence of emotions and motivation)
Humans aren’t like computers
59
Assumptions of humanistic approach
People are good, they can grow psychologically through positivity
People always strive to meet their full potential (self actualisation)
Motivation comes from hierarchy of needs
Therapy should be client centred, warm and genuine
Psychological problems happen because of the difference between the real and ideal self
The scientific method doesn’t work here, it’s too reductionist
60
Person centred approach
We’re all unique and active agents so should focus on our subjective experience rather than general laws
61
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Everyone has an innate tendency to reach their full potential
Need to meet the needs of the lower stages before we can reach full potential
```
Stage 1 = physiological needs
Stage 2 = safety
Stage 3 = love / belonging
Stage 4 = self esteem
Stage 5 = self actualisation
```
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Stage 1 physiological needs
```
Breathing
Food
Water
Sex (pro creation)
Sleep
Excretion
Homeostasis (biological systems)
```
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Stage 2 safety
```
Security of
Body
Employment
Health
Family
Morality
```
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Stage 3 love/belonging
Friendship
Family
Intimacy
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Stage 4 Self esteem
Confidence
| Achievement
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Stage 5 = self actualisation
Creativity
| Problem solving
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Importance of the self self
Self concept = what we think about ourselves
Ideal self = how we went to be
Real self = how we really are
Incongruence = the gap between self concept and ideal self
68
Positive self regard
We fulfil our potential for growth if we have a positive view of ourselves
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Congruence
Their self concept and real self are similar
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Unconditional positive regard
We need to feel valued and respected by those around us
71
Conditions of worth
We think we will only be loved and valued if we meet certain conditions
Like good grades
Or dress nicely with friends
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What impact does conditions of worth have?
Creates incongruity between real and ideal self
Leads to low self worth and esteem
Overall challenge is to try and close gap between real and ideal self
73
Carl rogers and client centred therapy
He was one of the pioneers of this approach
Helps people cope with problems of everyday living
Many of our issues like self esteem come from childhood and lack of unconditional love / positive regard from our parents
A parent who set boundaries on love gives their children psychological problems in the future
The therapy provides us with unconditional positive regard we didn’t get as children
74
Influence of counselling psychology
The relationship between therapist and client is crucial for them to feel accepted and comfortable
They overcome barriers
75
Study about counselling psychology
Elliot’s (2002) meta analysis of 86 studies
Found humanistic therapies really improved clients compared to having no treatment
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Difference between holism and ideographic
Holism = looks a whole person don’t break behaviour down
Ideographic = focuses on individual
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Nomothetic
General laws of human behaviour
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Strength of humanistic approach
Not reductionist
As it advocates holism and subjective experience we consider the whole person making it more valid by considering human behaviour with real life context
In contrast Other approaches like cognitive behaviourists and psychodynamic break behaviours up
79
Weakness of humanistic approach
Has limited application
Does help with counselling and workplace (hierarchy of needs)
But has limited impact with psychology as a whole. Lack of scientific evidence
More abstract concepts rather than comprehensive theory
80
Strength of humanistic approach pt 2
Positive approach
Promotes positive image of humans
Contrast to freud saying they’re slaves of their past
More refreshing and optimistic where people are free to work towards achievement and potential
They’re in control of their lives
81
Limitation of humanistic approach pt 2
Cultural bias
Many ideas like individual freedom and personal growth are mostly associated with individualistic western cultures like USA
Not globally generalisable
82
Free will
Humans being able to express choice which isn’t determined by biological or external forces
83
Determinism
External forces are the cause behind human behaviours
84
Assumptions of psychodynamic approach
Most of our behaviour is driven by unconscious motives
Childhood is a critical period in development, most of our behaviours are rooted in childhood trauma
Mental disorders come from unresolved, unconscious conflicts from childhood
Our personality (psyche) is made up of 3 components = Id, ego and superego
Defence mechanisms are used to protect us from traumatic memories / events
85
Iceberg analogy, the human mind
Conscious (ego)
```
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Preconscious
(Ego, superego)
Dream state
Recent experiences
```
```
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Unconscious
(Id, little bit ego, superego)
Instincts
Trauma
Fears
Passions
```
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The conscious
The part of the mind we’re aware of all the time
Consists of mostly ego
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The pre conscious
Consists of all the material we’re not currently aware of but could potentially be aware of
Consists of ego and superego
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The unconscious
Material we never have direct access too
Repressed memories and unconscious conflicts
Consists of a little bit of ego, superego and id
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Freud’s idea of where thoughts go
All start in the unconscious, some get through to preconscious and conscious awareness but some don’t
These thoughts have to be forcefully repressed in unconscious
The repression is active and dynamic because thoughts in the unconscious keep trying to break through
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3 parts the psyche is made up of
Id
Ego
Superego
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Id
```
Exists from birth
Most selfish part
Wants immediate satisfaction
Uses pleasure principle
Irrational
```
Like a little toddler
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Ego
```
Between ages 1-2
In touch with real world
Tried to meet demand of Id and superego
Operates using reality principle
Problem solved
```
Balancing act like referee
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Superego
Your morals
Used morality principle
Causes feeling of guilt and regret
E.g taking food you’re not supposed to
Like an an angel side of you
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Different ways to access unconscious kings
Adults= Freudian slip (say or write something unintended. Freud says it’s your unconscious pushing through)
Hypnosis (temporary trance to access unconscious)
Dreams (What you can recall)
Children = free association
(Talking with therapist etc)
95
3 types of defence mechanisms
Displacement
Repression
Denial
We use unconscious defence mechanism to protect us from unpleasant thoughts
The ego uses these defences to deal with stress caused by conflicting demands of Id and superego
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Displacement
Transferring feelings on to someone or something else
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Repression
Unconsciously pushing bad memories to the back of your mind so you forget
E.g sexual abuse
98
Denial
Completely rejecting thoughts or feelings, not acknowledging them
Pretending you don’t have a test next week
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Research supporting repression
Gagnepain researcher if suppressing memories into unconscious influences behaviour or not
Concentrated on visual memories that suffers with PTSD find intrusive. Brain activity was measured through FMRI. They had to learn pairs of words and pictures combined
Found that memory trace was weakened by suppression. Scan showed memories has been disrupted
So behaviour might not be affected by suppressed memories as they can’t recall them
100
Freud says we are born with 2 major instincts
Libido = life instinct which is our main source of energy for life. Concerned with survival and sexual reproduction
Thanatos = death instinct, wishing to return to a state where everything is provided (womb)
Those with higher levels of libido might have a positive outlook on life
101
5 psychosexual stages
Old Age Pensioners Love Guinness
```
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
```
Each stage focuses on libido (life force) on a different area of the body
The child most resolve each stage to successfully pass onto the next
If stage isn’t resolved they’re said to be fixated at that stage with affects personality in adulthood
102
Oral stage
Birth - 18months
The mouth is main focus of pleasure (milk, breastfeeding)
Completing successfully is by weaning and eating independently
Oral fixation = smoking, biting nails, being sarcastic / critical
Dominated by pleasure principle
Too much too little satisfaction results in being fixated
103
Anal stage
18 months - 3 years
Anal is main source of pleasure child decides whether to withhold or expel faeces (controlling bowels)
Completing successfully is potty training
Anally retentive = tidy, stubborn, perfectionist, obsessive
Anally repulsive = generous, disorganised, thoughtless
Ego develops
104
Phallic stage
3 - 5 years
Genitals are focus of pleasure. Children develop gender identity through Oedipus and Electra complex
Super ego develops at this stage
Reckless, narcissistic maybe homosexual
105
Latency stage
5 - 12 years old
| Conflicts and issues are repressed, leads to children being unable to remember early years
106
Genital stage
12 years+
Sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty
Consequences of unresolved conflict = difficulty performing heterosexual relationships
107
Oedipus complex
Boy has unconscious feelings for his mother
Feels jealous of father and hates him
Scared father will find out and punish (castrate)
Boy feels guilty for feelings towards mother
Behind to act like father so father doesn’t get angry with him
Identification with father takes place
108
Electra complex
Girls realise they don’t have penis and have been castrated by mother
Hate mother for having father
Develop penis envy
Girls fear losing mothers love so identify with her
Feel of love isn’t a powerful reason for identification as fear for castration is so boys might identify more
Forget about penis envy and focus on child rearing
109
Freud’s only evidence Little Hans
Had phobia of horses
Wanted to find out what led to the phobia
From 3 Hans showed interest in widdlers
His mom threatened to cut it off unless he stopped playing with it
Was scared of horses that resembled his father
Freud linked fear to Oedipus complex
Suggests Hans resolved conflict as he fantasised himself with big penis and married to mother
This allowed him to overcome castration anxiety and identify with father
110
Evaluation of little Hans
Freud ignored other explanations for phobia like a horse dying in the street
Only one male pp was used but freud said everyone suffers from Oedipus complex
There was focus on real experiences in real situation
Method was case study, data can be open to interpretation
Freud collected info second hand through father who knew about the work and was his friend
He thought about confidentiality and protecting Hans privacy when conducting case study
By understanding root of his problems his phobia was effectively treated and led to a cure
111
Anna O’s study
Very intellectual
Developed symptoms when birthing father through illness
Health deteriorated
Suffered from speech impediment, became mute for little time
After father passed away she had new symptoms had 2 personalities
She began talking cure
Her childhood symptoms were linked
Deafness because her brother caught her listening to her parents having ***
During process symptoms would worsen but once discussed disappeared
112
Strengths of psychodynamic approach
Provides explanations for wide range of behaviours (gender, personality) had great influence on psychology in 20th century
Helps therapies access unconscious
Provided evidence from detailed case studies
Conducted observations and recorded them accurately producing valid rich data
113
Weaknesses of psychodynamic approach
Gender, culture bias
Not generalisable
Ignores mediational processes (thinking)
Too much emphasis on psychological factors doesn’t consider genetic factors
Too determinist (little free will)
Can’t observe unconscious, not scientific so less valid
